Discontinuation Of Oral Contraceptives Research Articles

YouTube and the implementation and discontinuation of the oral contraceptive pill: A mixed-method content analysis.

Women living in high-quality healthcare systems are more likely to use oral contraceptives at some point in their lives. Research findings have sparked controversial discussions about contraception in the scientific community and the media, potentially leading to higher rates of method discontinuation. Understanding the underlying motives for method discontinuation is crucial for reproductive health equity and future programming interventions. To address this question, this study aims to explore women's experiences of oral contraceptive use and discontinuation on YouTube. A concurrent explanatory mixed-methods design was used to conduct content analysis of German YouTube videos. The information from 175 videos of 158 individuals was extracted through quantitative descriptive content analysis. Twenty-one individuals were included in the qualitative content analysis. The body was a recurring theme in the pill biographies. Women described, for example, bodily sensations as reasons for taking and stopping the pill. They also described positive and negative side effects while taking the pill and after stopping. The most common side effects of taking the pill mentioned by YouTubers were mood swings (76/158), weight gain (45/158), headaches (33/158), and depressed mood (45/158). The symptoms after discontinuation reported most were facial skin impurities (108/158), decreased mood swings (47/158), hair loss (42/158), and weight loss (36/158). Overall, women overwhelmingly rated their discontinuation experience as positive (87/91). The study identified key symptoms of oral contraceptive initiation and discontinuation by portraying the experiences of female YouTubers, adding valuable insights to the understanding of method initiation and discontinuation. Further research is needed to explore women's personal experiences with method discontinuation beyond the YouTube platform.

Double bad luck: pulmonary embolism and vaginal bleeding - a case report

BackgroundPulmonary embolism is a common and potentially fatal condition. Exogenous estrogens in contraceptives are associated with an increased risk of venous thrombo-embolism. However, discontinuation of a combined oral contraceptive can lead to severe withdrawal bleeding in an anticoagulated patient.Case presentationWe report a case of a 47-year-old female who presented to the emergency room with a two-day history of worsening shortness of breath and chest pain. Her chronic medication included a combined oral contraceptive pill. Transthoracic echocardiogram showed pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular dilatation. Computerized tomography scan revealed bilateral pulmonary embolism. She received thrombolysis with alteplase and was started on rivaroxaban. Five days after discharge, however, she was readmitted with severe vaginal bleeding.Discussion and conclusionWe describe a case of submassive pulmonary embolism, treated with thrombolysis and anticoagulation, who developed severe vaginal bleeding after stopping the contraceptive pill. This case highlights the importance of detailed menstrual history taking when initiating anticoagulation in women. Discontinuation of oral contraceptives, while important in reducing the risk of recurrent thrombosis, could be postponed until the end of the recommended course of anticoagulation and until a safe alternative form of contraception has been established, if required.

Bleeding Patterns of Oral Contraceptives with a Cyclic Dosing Regimen: An Overview.

Bleeding irregularities are one of the major reasons for discontinuation of oral contraceptives (OCs), and therefore clinicians need to set expectations during consultations. In this review we provide an overview of bleeding data of recently marketed cyclic combined OCs (COCs) and one progestin-only pill (POP). We evaluated data from phase 3 trials (≥12 months) used to gain regulatory approval. Overall, each type of OC has its own specific bleeding pattern. These patterns however were assessed by using different bleeding definitions, which hampers comparisons between products. In COCs, the estrogen balances the effects of the progestin on the endometrium, resulting in a regular bleeding pattern. However, this balance seems lost if a too low dose of ethinylestradiol (EE) (e.g., 10 µg in EE/norethindrone acetate 1 mg) is used in an attempt to lower the risk of venous thromboembolism. Replacement of EE by 17β-estradiol (E2) or E2 valerate could lead to suboptimal bleeding profile due to destabilization of the endometrium. Replacement of EE with estetrol (E4) 15 mg in the combination with drospirenone (DRSP) 3 mg is associated with a predictable and regular scheduled bleeding profile, while the POP containing DRSP 4 mg in a 24/4 regimen is associated with a higher rate of unscheduled and absence of scheduled bleeding than combined products.

Observational Study for Adverse Effects and Discontinuation with Long-Term Post-Operative Hormonal Treatment for Endometriosis in Real-World Practice

Objectives To evaluate the side effects and causes of discontinuation of either combined oral contraceptives or dienogest (DNG) used to prevent recurrence in patients with surgically confirmed endometriosis. Methods We retrospectively analyzed the medical records of 213 women with endometriosis who had been treated with combined oral contraceptives (ethinyl estradiol 0.02 mg/drospirenone 3 mg [EE/DRSP]) or DNG 2 mg for 12 months or more. The side effects reported by the patients, laboratory parameters, causes of discontinuation of medication, and recurrence rates were evaluated one, two, three, four, and five years after starting medication (Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, and Y5). Results EE/DRSP were administered to 59 patients, while DNG was administered to 154 patients. The mean durations of postoperative use of EE/DRSP and DNG were 44.5 ± 22.6 months and 23.6 ± 13.5 months, respectively. The prevalence of side effects was 27.1%, 19.0%, 10.0%, 10.5%, and 7.4% in the EE/DRSP group and 29.2%, 15.7%, 14.0%, 23.1%, and 0.0% in the DNG group at Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, and Y5, respectively. The discontinuation rates were 1.7%, 1.7%, 4.0%, 0.0%, and 7.4% at Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, and Y5, respectively, in the EE/DRSP group and 10.4%, 3.3%, 4.0%, 3.8%, and 0.0% at the same times in the DNG group. The recurrence rates were less than 4% in both the groups. Conclusions The side effects of commonly prescribed postoperative hormone treatments were relatively mild, and the occurrence of side effects decreased with continuous administration. Further, the long-term use of postoperative hormone treatments is likely to prevent recurrence of endometriosis after surgery.

Comparison of two drospirenone-containing oral contraceptives for their effect on the ovary, menstrual cycle, acne, and side-effect profile: 20 µg ethinylestradiol/3 mg drospirenone (24/4) versus 30 µg ethinylestradiol/3 mg drospirenone (21/7)

Background/Aim: Serious side effects, depending on the length of the hormone-free interval and the estrogen dose, cause the discontinuation of combined oral contraceptives (COCs). Therefore, it is important to identify COCs with minimal side effects which provide effective contraception. This study aimed to compare the effects of two different drospirenone-containing oral contraceptives (COCs) on ovarian suppression, cycle control, premenstrual symptoms, pain, acne, and the incidence of side-effects. Methods: This prospective randomized controlled study was conducted with eighty women aged between 17-40 years. Patients were randomized to either 3mg drospirenone/30mcg ethinylestradiol (21/7 tablets) (Group 1) or 3mg drospirenone/20mcg ethinylestradiol (24/4 tablets) (Group 2) COCs. On Day-3 of the pre-treatment cycle, menstrual cycle patterns, serum hormone and lipid levels, menstrual complaints were recorded, followed by an evaluation of Day-21 progesterone levels, sonographic evaluation of endometrial thickness and the ovaries. Same assessment was repeated after pill use and the findings of the two cycles were compared. Results: Both COC formulations suppressed serum hormone levels, decreased endometrial thickness and reduced incidence of dysmenorrhea-dyspareunia, and acne while serum HDL-cholesterol level was increased. Progesterone, FSH and endometrial thickness were lower, and serum cholesterol level was higher in Group 2 (P=0.007, P=0.044, P

Fertility treatment and oral contraceptive discontinuation for identification of pregnancy planning in routinely collected health data \u2013 an application to analgesic and antibiotic utilisation

BackgroundWomen with unplanned pregnancies use folic acid less frequently, and more often use potentially teratogenic medications in the first trimester. Yet most studies based on routinely collected data lack information on pregnancy planning. Further, only pregnancies proceeding beyond a certain gestational age appear in routinely collected data, creating the possibility for collider-stratification bias. If pregnancy intention could be identified, pregnancies could be ascertained earlier. This study aimed to investigate fertility treatment and discontinuation of oral contraception (OC) as proxies for pregnancy planning by describing variations in patterns of prescription fills for antibiotics and analgesics during the peri-pregnancy period by these proxies of pregnancy intention.MethodsFertility treatment with clomiphene and discontinuation of OC were identified in the Norwegian Prescription Database (NorPD) and linked with data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway for the years 2006 to 2017. Filled prescriptions for antibiotics and analgesics from NorPD were displayed for women on fertility treatment, women who discontinued OC before pregnancy, and women who discontinued during pregnancy.ResultsOf 172,585 included pregnancies, fertility treatment was identified in 19,449, and OC discontinuation before or during pregnancy in 153,136. Women who discontinued OC during pregnancy were less likely to use preconception folic acid (25.4%) than women who discontinued before pregnancy (32.9%), and women on fertility treatment (51.0%). Proportions of first trimester prescription fills were 4.9% (analgesics) and 12.8% (antibiotics) for women who discontinued OC during pregnancy, compared to 4.0 and 11.4% in women who discontinued OC before pregnancy, and 4.7 and 11.0% in women on fertility treatment.ConclusionsThere were no substantial differences in patterns of prescription fills for analgesics and antibiotics before or during pregnancy by fertility treatment and OC discontinuation. This suggests that there were few differences in medication use between women with planned and unplanned pregnancies, or that fertility treatment and timing of OC discontinuation from routinely collected health data cannot stand alone in the identification of unplanned pregnancies. A narrower definition of OC discontinuation during pregnancy seemed to be a better proxy, but this should be confirmed in other studies.

Oral contraceptive use and anterior cruciate ligament injury: comparison of active comparator new user cohort and case-control study designs

BackgroundThis study further investigates a protective association between oral contraceptive (OC) use and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury noted in prior case-control studies.MethodsActive comparator new user cohort analysis of women aged 13–45 years in the United States from the IBM MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters database who newly-initiated low-dose OCs (exposed) or underwent intrauterine device (IUD) insertion (comparison group) from 2000 to 2014. Women were followed for ACL injury starting 90 days after OC initiation or IUD insertion until OC or IUD discontinuation or end of continuous enrollment. Adjusted hazard ratios (adjHR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated controlling for age. Secondary analysis replicated previously-published case-control studies assessing “ever” versus “never” OC use over 1- and 5-year periods among women who underwent ACL reconstruction compared to age-matched controls.ResultsIn the cohort analysis, 2,370,286 women initiated OCs and 621,798 underwent IUD insertion. There were 3571 (0.15%) ACL injuries during an average 370.6 days of continuous OC use and 1620 (0.26%) during an average 590.5 days of IUD use. No difference in risk of ACL injury was observed between OC initiators and IUD users (adjHR = 0.95; 95%CI 0.89, 1.01). The case-control analysis replicated the slight protective association observed in prior studies over a 5-year period (OR = 0.90; 95%CI 0.85, 0.94).ConclusionsThis cohort study suggests no association between OC use and ACL injury, while the case-control study suggested bias from uncontrolled confounding and selection factors may have influenced previous findings that suggested a protective association between OC use and ACL injury.

SAT-221 False-Positive Urinary Free Cortisol with Oral Contraceptive Use

Introduction It is well-established that estrogen-containing oral contraceptives can raise serum cortisol levels and yield false-positive results on dexamethasone suppression testing, however it is less known that they can raise urinary free cortisol levels by an unknown mechanism. Case presentation A 47-year old woman taking microgestin 1/20 oral contraceptive (OC) was found incidentally to have osteopenia on chest X-ray. Subsequent DEXA scan demonstrated osteoporosis. During the work-up to determine the underlying etiology of her osteoporosis, she underwent a 24-hour urinary free cortisol, which was 207 ug/24 hours (0-50 ug/24 hours). Serum cortisol was 40.1 (6.2-19.4 ug/dL) and overnight 1mg dexamethasone suppression test yielded a cortisol of 2.7. After one week off her OC, serum cortisol was 24.6. After five weeks off her OC, urinary free cortisol was 19 and 1mg dexamethasone suppression test yielded a cortisol of 0.8. On exam, the patient did not have any cushingoid features. MRI of the brain showed a small hypoenhancing lesion, which was determined by neurosurgery to be insignificant. Ultimately, the cause of her osteoporosis was thought to be likely secondary to vitamin D deficiency and calcium malabsorption due to celiac disease. Discussion The biochemical diagnosis of hypercortisolism during treatment with estrogen-containing OCs remains a challenge. Prior studies have demonstrated that serum cortisol levels are typically elevated during OC use and that 1mg dexamethasone suppression testing may yield false-positive results in more than 50% of cases. This is thought to be due to an increase in the major binding protein for cortisol, corticosteroid-binding globulin. Although it is commonly thought that OCs do not affect urinary free cortisol measurements, a recent study showed that more than one-third of women taking OCs had a mild elevation of urinary free cortisol. There are a few hypotheses for the mechanism by which OC use leads to elevated urinary free cortisol, including direct effect on steroidogenesis in the adrenal glands. Our patient had a significantly elevated 24-hour urinary free cortisol and an equivocal 1mg dexamethasone suppression test while on OCs that normalized with OC discontinuation. Further, serum cortisol decreased with OC discontinuation. Conclusion The 24-hour urinary free cortisol level may be altered by oral contraceptive use and is therefore not a valid tool to evaluate for hypercortisolism in women on OCs. References Nickelsen T, et al. (1989). The dexamethasone suppression test and long-term contraceptive treatment. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology, 94, 275–280. Paschali M, et al. (2013). False positives on both dexamethasone testing and urinary free cortisol in women on oral contraception. Clin Endocrinol, 79, 443-445. Trainer PJ. (2002). Corticosteroids and pregnancy. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine, 20, 375–280.

Factors affecting the course and severity of adult acne. Observational cohort study

Objective: To identify factors improving symptoms and shortening duration of AA.Material and methods: The observational cohort study was performed in 111 patients with AA (>25 y.o.) in 2015–2016. Clinical manifestation, previous treatments, environmental risk factors and features of juvenile acne affecting AA were assessed.Results: The maximum severity of persistent acne was significantly lower after 25 years of age, as compared to adolescence (7.2 vs. 6.4; p = .0027). The number of acne therapies used in AA was twice as high as in juvenile acne (22 vs. 11). The severity of AA sufficient to leave scars was significantly lower than of juvenile acne (6.0 vs. 7.3; p = .0001) with 22% of patients developing scars only in adult life. Patients linked exacerbations to stress exposure (p = .09 and <.0001 for those reporting at least one stressor and all patients, respectively), finding lifestyle changes the most stressful (p = .046). Those using full-coverage foundations received significantly more acne treatments over lifetime (5.4 vs. 3.6; p = .0359) and for AA (4.4 vs. 2.8; p = .0043). Discontinuation of oral contraceptives or sensitive, erythema-prone skin also worsened the symptoms.Conclusion: Lifestyle change-related stress, sensitive skin, discontinuation of oral contraceptives and using full-coverage foundations increase severity of AA.

Early Impact Of The Affordable Care Act On Oral Contraceptive Cost Sharing, Discontinuation, And Nonadherence.

The oral contraceptive pill is the contraceptive method most commonly used by US women, but inconsistent use of the pill is a contributor to high rates of unintended pregnancy. The relationship between consumer cost sharing and consistent use of the pill is not well understood, and the impact of the elimination of cost sharing for oral contraceptive pills in a mandate in the Affordable Care Act (ACA) is not yet known. We analyzed insurance claims for 635,075 women with employer-sponsored insurance who were initiating use of the pill, to examine rates of discontinuation and nonadherence, their relationship with cost sharing, and trends before and during the first year after implementation of the ACA mandate. We found that cost sharing for oral contraceptives decreased markedly following implementation, more significantly for generic than for brand-name versions. Higher copays were associated with greater discontinuation of and nonadherence to generic pills than was the case with zero copayments. Discontinuation of the use of generic or brand-name pills decreased slightly but significantly following ACA implementation, as did nonadherence to brand-name pills. Our findings suggest a modest early impact of the ACA on improving consistent use of oral contraceptives among women initiating their use.

Melasma and Vitiligo: Novel and Experimental Therapies

Several factors are implicated in the pathogenesis of melasma, including genetic predisposition, ultraviolet radiation, thyroid disease, pregnancy, oral contraceptives, and drugs. The current approach to management incorporates a prevention strategy that includes sun avoidance, a broad spectrum sunscreen, discontinuation of oral contraceptives, avoidance of contact allergens and sensitizers, and minimization of heat and friction in the skin [1]. An intrauterine levonorgestrel-releasing device may be safer than oral contraceptives when melasma is concerned [2].

A comparison of second and third generations combined oral contraceptive pills' effect on mood.

Background:Most women taking combined oral contraceptives (COCs) are satisfied with their contraceptive method. However, one of the most common reasons reported for discontinuation of combined oral contraceptives (COCs) is mood deterioration.Objectives:This study aimed to compare effects of the second and third generation oral contraceptive pills on the mood of reproductive women.Materials and Methods:This randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial was conducted in reproductive women at health centers in Tehran, Iran. Participants were randomized into the second and third generation oral contraceptive groups. Positive and negative moods were recorded using positive affect, negative affect scale (PANAS) tools at the end the second and fourth months of the study. Data analysis was carried out using ANOVA and P Values < 0.05 was considered significant.Results:Statistically significant difference was seen in positive and negative mood changes in women receiving contraceptive pills. The second generation oral contraceptive pills resulted in a decrease in positive mood (95% CI: 43.39 to 38.32 in second month and 43.39 to 26.05 in four month) and increase in negative mood (95% CI: 14.23 to 22.04 in second month and 14.23 to 32.26 in four month - P < 0.001), but the third generation led to an increase in positive mood (95% CI: 22.42 to 25.60 in second month and 22.42 to 33.87 in four month) and decrease in negative mood (95% CI: 36.78 to 31.97 in second month and 36.78 to 22.65 in four month - P < 0.001).Conclusions:Third generation combined oral contraceptive pills have a better effect on mood in women in reproductive ages than the second generation pills. It can be recommended as a proper combined oral contraceptive in Iran.

Risk of cancer with combined oral contraceptive use among Iranian women.

Oral contraceptive use is the most common type of contraception. More than 300 million women worldwide take oral contraceptives every day. However, there is a concern about the relationship with the incidence of cancer. This analytical retrospective study aimed to investigate the relationship between the incidence of cervical and breast cancers and oral contraceptive use in 128 Iranian patients with cervical cancer, 235 with breast cancer and equal numbers of controls. Data were collected through interviews with an organized set of questions. Details were also extracted from patient files. Data were analyzed using Student's t-test, chi-square and Fisher's exact tests, and Pearson's correlation analysis. The result revealed correlations between both cervical and breast cancers and history of contraceptive pills use. While cervical cancer significantly correlated with duration of use of pills, breast cancer had significant correlations with the type of oral contraceptive and age at first use. No significant relationships were found between the two types of cancer and age at discontinuation of oral contraceptives, patterns of use, and intervals from the last use. The use of oral contraceptives may triple the incidence of cervical cancer and doubles the incidence of breast cancer. Therefore, performing Pap smears every six months and breast cancer screening are warranted for long-term oral contraceptive users.

Return to Ovulatory Capacity With Three Combined Oral Contraceptive Regimens

INTRODUCTION: This study was designed to evaluate the effect of the combined oral contraceptive regimen LeCette (150 micrograms desogestrel and 20 micrograms ethinyl estradiol for 21 days followed by 10 micrograms of ethinyl estradiol for 7 days) and two different 28-day combined oral contraceptives on ovulation inhibition and return to ovulatory capacity. METHODS: In this phase 1, randomized, open-label comparative study, healthy, nonsmoking women aged 18–35 years with regular menstrual cycles were randomized to receive one of three combined oral contraceptives for three consecutive 28-day cycles. The three combined oral contraceptives evaluated were 21 days desogestrel and ethinyl estradiol followed by 7 days of ethinyl estradiol (desogestrel and ethinyl estradiol+ethinyl estradiol); 24 days of 3 mg drospirenone and 20 micrograms ethinyl estradiol followed by 4 placebo days (drospirenone and ethinyl estradiol and placebo); and 21 days of 100 micrograms levonorgestrel and 20 micrograms ethinyl estradiol followed by 7 placebo days (levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol+placebo). The proportion of women who returned to ovulatory capacity after combined oral contraceptive discontinuation was a secondary endpoint. Ovulatory capacity was defined as serum progesterone concentrations of at least 15.9 nmol/L on posttreatment cycle days 18, 19, or 20. RESULTS: A total of 206 women were randomized, 146 were evaluated for safety, and 142 were evaluated for efficacy. Greater ovarian suppression and ovulation inhibition were observed with desogestrel and ethinyl estradiol+ethinyl estradiol and drospirenone and ethinyl estradiol+placebo compared with levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol+placebo during the study. Return to ovulatory capacity occurred in approximately 76% desogestrel and ethinyl estradiol+ethinyl estradiol, 75% drospirenone and ethinyl estradiol+placebo, and 58% levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol+placebo of women. Adverse events were comparable among groups and consistent with those observed with other combined oral contraceptives. CONCLUSION: Regimens with altered or eliminated hormone-free intervals provided greater ovarian suppression with little delay in return to ovulatory capacity.

The Influence of Oral Contraceptive Knowledge on Oral Contraceptive Continuation Among Young Women

Using a multidimensional approach, we assessed young women's knowledge of oral contraceptives (OC) and its influence on OC continuation rates. We used data from 659 women aged 13-25 years participating in a randomized controlled trial of an educational text message OC continuation intervention. Women received 6 months of daily text messages or routine care. At baseline and 6 months, we administered a comprehensive 41-item questionnaire measuring knowledge of OC's mechanism, effectiveness, use, side effects, risks, and benefits. We ascertained OC continuation status and reasons for discontinuation at 6 months. We analyzed relationships between OC knowledge and continuation with multivariable logistic regression. Young women scored, on average, 22.8 out of 41 points on the OC knowledge assessment at baseline and 24.7 points at 6 months. The 6-month OC continuation rate was 59%. OC continuers had >2-points-higher OC knowledge scores at 6 months than discontinuers (p<0.001). Those who reported discontinuing their OCs for side effects and forgetfulness scored >2 points lower than women who discontinued for other reasons (p-values<0.001). In multivariable regression models, each correct response on the baseline and 6-month knowledge assessments was associated with a 4% and 6% increased odds of OC continuation, respectively. Six-month OC knowledge scores were negatively associated with OC discontinuation due to side effects (odds ratio [OR] 0.94) and forgetfulness (OR 0.88). OC knowledge, which was low among young women in our study, was associated with OC continuation and common reasons for discontinuation. Continued efforts to characterize relationships between OC knowledge and behavior and to test the effectiveness of different components of interventions aimed at increasing knowledge, addressing side effects, and improving use of OCs are warranted.

Minor Side Effects, Tolerance and Discontinuation of Oral Contraception among Women in Rural Cambodia

Minor Side Effects, Tolerance and Discontinuation of Oral Contraception among Women in Rural Cambodia

Premenopausal Amenorrhea: What's in a Number?

A 33-year-old nulligravid woman presented to her gynecologist after experiencing 5 months of secondary amenorrhea following discontinuation of oral contraceptives. She had undergone normal puberty and menarche with no significant past medical or surgical history. Her family history was unremarkable other than a brother with developmental delay. On exam she was 165 cm tall and weighed 67 kg, with a body mass index of 24.6 kg/m2 (reference interval, 18.5–24.9 kg/m2). She did not display any evidence of hyperandrogenism (hirsutism or acne), and her pelvic exam was normal. A urine pregnancy test was negative. Initial progestin challenge testing (daily oral administration of 10 mg medroxyprogesterone acetate for 7 days) was negative (no bleeding), indicating that the patient was either hypoestrogenic or that she had a uterine outflow abnormality (e.g., uterine scarring) (1). (Progestin challenge testing provides an indirect assessment of serum estradiol concentrations. Due to false positives and negatives associated with progestin challenge testing, as well as the development of assays directly measuring serum estradiol, progestin challenge tests are not routinely used.) A uterine outflow abnormality was deemed to be unlikely given that the patient had normal menses on oral contraceptive pills and she had no history of uterine manipulation or surgery. Her serum prolactin was 8.3 ng/mL (reference interval, 0.2–24.5 ng/mL), her total testosterone (measured by chemiluminescent immunoassay) was 14 ng/dL (reference interval, 14–76 ng/dL), and her free testosterone (measured by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry) was 0.2 pg/mL (reference interval, 1.3–9.2 pg/mL). Her serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)3 was 3.03 μIU/mL (reference interval, 0.36–4.20 μIU/mL) and her follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was 57.3 mIU/mL (reference intervals: follicular phase, 2.5–10.2 mIU/mL; midcycle, 3.4–33.4 mIU/mL; luteal phase, 1.5–9.1 mIU/mL; postmenopausal, 23.0–116.3 mIU/mL), confirming a diagnosis of hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. ### QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. What are the causes of oligomenorrhea/amenorrhea in women of childbearing age? 2. What laboratory …

Hormonal contraceptive use and discontinuation among HIV-infected women in Uganda and Zimbabwe.

Hormonal contraception (HC) use by HIV-infected women has been identified by the World Health Organization as an important strategy for reducing vertical HIV transmission. Little is known about the factors associated with HC discontinuation among HIV-infected women. We analyzed data from a prospective study of HC use among 231 HIV-infected users with oral contraceptive (OC) or injectable depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) in Uganda and Zimbabwe. We used Kaplan-Meier survival curves to estimate the median duration of OC and DMPA use and use of any highly effective contraceptive method. Cox proportional hazards models were used to investigate factors associated with HC discontinuation. Median duration was 36 months [95% confidence interval (CI): 14 to 61] for OC use and 19 months (95% CI: 14 to 24) for DMPA use. Median duration of any highly effective method was 36 months (95% CI: 26 to N/A) for OC users and 22 months (95% CI: 14 to 38) for DMPA users. In multivariable analyses, living in Zimbabwe [hazard ratio (HR): 0.39; 95% CI: 0.18 to 0.83], no partner (HR: 7.18; 95% CI: 3.05 to 16.88), and cervical infection (HR: 1.99; 95% CI: 0.90 to 4.41) were associated with OC discontinuation. No partner (HR: 2.00; 95% CI: 1.12 to 3.58), nausea (HR: 1.84; 95% CI: 1.02 to 3.34), and excessive night sweats (HR: 1.80; 95% CI: 0.95 to 3.40) were associated with DMPA discontinuation. Long-term use of HC methods is acceptable to HIV-infected women. Women discontinue for a variety of reasons, primarily unrelated to HIV. Alternative methods and ongoing contraceptive counseling is essential to reduce unplanned pregnancies and vertical HIV transmission.

An Evolutionary Approach Offers a Fresh Perspective on the Relationship Between Oral Contraception and Sexual Desire

Concern about the impact of oral contraceptive (OC) use on women’s sexual functioning, particularly lowered sexual desire (or libido), has been expressed for almost as long as OCs have been available. Despite numerous studies over several decades, however, we still do not know the underlying mechanism for negative effects nor can we predict which women will suffer from them (Sanders, Graham, Bass, & Bancroft, 2001). The research has consistently produced mixed evidence, of two kinds. First, there is mixed evidence across studies: some report negative associations between desire and OC use, others find no effect, and still others report positive effects (for recent reviews, see Burrows, Basha, & Goldstein, 2012; Davis & Castano, 2004; Pastor, Holla, & Chmel, 2013; Schaffir, 2006). Second, within their respective samples, studies also consistently report considerable individual variation in women’s experience: relatively large proportions of women experience a marked increase or decrease in desire, with others unaffected (Burrows et al., 2012; Davis & Castano, 2004; Pastor et al., 2013; Schaffir, 2006). For example, in a prospective study, 17 % had a higher frequency of sexual thoughts and 39 % had a lower frequency, following initiation of OC use (Sanders et al., 2001). Understanding this mixed pattern of results would likely benefit from a meta-analytical approach, although this would need to take into account the wide variation between studies in both methodologies and OC formulations under test. Currently, on the basis of these mixed effects, researchers typically conclude that the influence of OC use on sexual desire is complex and likely due to multiple psychosocial influences (Burrows et al., 2012; Davis & Castano, 2004; Pastor et al., 2013; Schaffir, 2006). Indeed, themostrecentreviewconcludedthat‘‘wecannot define a single indicator reliably and clearly characterizing a cause-effect relationship. This is mainly due to thesimultaneous and intertwined effects of a variety of complex biological, psychological, social, and multidimensional factors’’(Pastor et al., 2013). While thismaybeanaccurate reflectionof thecurrentempirical state of affairs, it is clearly unsatisfactory both to women concerned about possible consequences for their relationships and to healthcare providers who are unclear about what advice to give. Perceived changes in libido and arousal are important contributors to OC switching and discontinuation (Sanders et al., 2001). Understanding the mechanism underpinning these mixed effects is therefore of significant public health concern and this is a matter of global importance. According to the UN report on World Contraceptive Use 2011, 9 % of partnered women of reproductive age worldwide report using OC as their main contraceptive method, rising to 18 % in some regions. In the United States, 82 % of sexually experienced women, aged 18–44 years, had used OCat some stage of their lives (Mosher&Jones,2010). Against this background, new perspectives that might help to clarify the issue should be seized upon and scrutinized carefully. The possibilities that modulatory effects on mood or reduced circulatingtestosteronelevels(e.g., throughup-regulationofsex S. C. Roberts (&) School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK e-mail: craig.roberts@stir.ac.uk

Influence of Depressed Mood and Psychological Stress Symptoms on Perceived Oral Contraceptive Side Effects and Discontinuation in Young Minority Women

Background We examined the influence of depressed mood and psychological stress on oral contraceptive (OC) side effects and discontinuation.