Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Research Articles

Dependability of Direct Behavior Rating Single- and Multi-Item Scales Across Raters and Occasions in Two School Subjects

Direct Behavior Rating (DBR) has been proposed as a promising approach to assess student behavioral progress in classroom settings. The current study examines raters and occasions as well as their interactions as sources of error in the use of DBR–Multi-Item Scales (DBR-MIS) and DBR–Single-Item Scales (DBR-SIS) for academically engaged (AE) and disruptive behavior (DB). Furthermore, the stability of scores across two school subjects (i.e., German language, mathematics) was examined. A total of 20 students and two teachers in an inclusive elementary school classroom participated in the study. Generalizability study results suggest that little variance in DBR scores was attributable to the facets of raters or occasions, but the interactions between persons with raters and occasions accounted for a large portion of variance. Variance attributable to these interactions was slightly higher for DBR-MIS than for DBR-SIS ratings. Decision studies revealed that dependable measurements of AE could be achieved within 1.5 weeks of daily ratings for absolute decision-making. Findings regarding DB were mixed. Differences across both school subjects were found indicating that DBR ratings that are obtained in one academic setting may not necessarily be exchangeable with ratings obtained in another. Overall, the results demonstrate the utility of DBR for behavioral progress-monitoring purposes.

Examining the Concurrent Criterion-Related Validity of Direct Behavior Rating–Single Item Scales With Students With Social Competence Deficits

A line of research has supported the development and validation of Direct Behavior Rating–Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) for use in progress monitoring. Yet, this research was largely conducted within the general education setting with typically developing children. It is unknown whether the tool may be defensibly used with students exhibiting more substantial concerns, including students with social competence difficulties. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the concurrent validity of DBR-SIS in a middle school sample of students exhibiting substantial social competence concerns ( n = 58). Students were assessed using both DBR-SIS and systematic direct observation (SDO) across three target behaviors. Each student was enrolled in one of two interventions: the Social Competence Intervention or a business-as-usual control condition. Students were assessed across three time points, including baseline, mid-intervention, and postintervention. A review of across-time correlations indicated small to moderate correlations between DBR-SIS and SDO data ( r = .25–.45). Results further suggested that the relationships between DBR-SIS and SDO targets were small to large at baseline. Correlations attenuated over time, though differences across time points were not statistically significant. This was with the exception of academic engagement correlations, which remained moderate–high across all time points.

Bridging the Gap: Direct Behavior Rating–Single Item Scales

Direct Behavior Ratings (DBRs) are behavioral assessment methods that combine the benefits of systematic direct observation and behavior rating scales. That is, DBRs involve the observation of operationally defined target behaviors during a prespecified observation period and the evaluation of those behaviors via brief ratings. In this way, DBR is considered a hybrid assessment method. This article describes the landscape of DBR tools and provides an overview of the procedures and research currently available to support the use of one specific version, DBR–Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS), for progress monitoring within multi-tiered systems of support.

Formative Assessment Using Direct Behavior Ratings: Evaluating Intervention Effects of Daily Behavior Report Cards

This study examined the treatment sensitivity of Direct Behavior Rating–Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) in response to an evidence-based intervention delivered in a single-case, multiple-baseline design. DBR-SIS was used as a formative assessment in conjunction with a frequently used intervention in schools, a Daily Behavior Report Card (DRC). The intervention and concurrent assessment were conducted by five teachers in a rural Midwestern elementary school with five male students displaying mild to moderate behavioral challenges in the classroom. Study findings indicated DBR-SIS displays appropriate treatment sensitivity following intervention implementation. Agreement in the documentation of response and nonresponse to intervention implementation between DBR-SIS and systematic direct observation (SDO) data was evident across visual and empirical analyses. In addition, through a multiple-baseline design, this study documented negligible to no change in student behavior following implementation of a DRC in an applied classroom setting. These findings support previous calls for continued examination of the forms and components of DRC employed in schools. Finally, the study found educators rated the use of a combined DRC intervention and progress monitoring with DBR-SIS as favorable.

Use of direct behavior ratings to collect functional assessment data.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the utility of Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scale (DBR-SIS) methodology in collecting functional behavior assessment data. Specific questions of interest pertained to the evaluation of the accuracy of brief DBR-SIS ratings of behavioral consequences and determination of the type of training necessary to support such accuracy. Undergraduate student participants (N = 213; 62.0% male; 62.4% White) viewed video clips of students in a classroom setting, and then rated both disruptive behavior and 4 consequences of that behavior (i.e., adult attention, peer attention, escape/avoidance, and access to tangibles/activities). Results indicated training with performance feedback was necessary to support the generation of accurate disruptive behavior and consequence ratings. Participants receiving such support outperformed students in training-only, pretest-posttest, and posttest-only groups for disruptive behavior and all 4 DBR-SIS consequence targets. Future directions for research and implications for practice are discussed, including how teacher ratings may be collected along with other forms of assessment (e.g., progress monitoring) within an efficient Tier 2 assessment model. (PsycINFO Database Record

Progress Monitoring the Effects of Daily Report Cards Across Elementary and Secondary Settings Using Direct Behavior Rating: Single Item Scales

Direct Behavior Rating–Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) have been advanced as a promising, systematic, behavioral, progress-monitoring method that is flexible, efficient, and defensible. This study aimed to extend existing literature on the use of DBR-SIS in elementary and secondary settings, and to examine methods of monitoring student progress in response to intervention. To this end, two concurrent multiple baseline design studies were conducted in a diverse magnet school district located in the northeastern United States. One study was conducted with four students in kindergarten and first grade, whereas the second study was conducted with three students in 10th and 11th grade. Response to a Daily Report Card (DRC) intervention was monitored using two different approaches: DBR-SIS and systematic direct observation (SDO) probes. Across all participants, modest improvements in behavior were observed using both visual and quantitative analyses of DBR-SIS data; however, decisions regarding student response to the intervention varied as a function of the dependent variable analyzed. Implications for practice and future directions for research are discussed.

Direct Behavior Rating Instrumentation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of two different Direct Behavior Rating–Single Item Scale (DBR-SIS) formats on rating accuracy. A total of 119 undergraduate students participated in one of two study conditions, each utilizing a different DBR-SIS scale format: one that included percentage of time anchors on the DBR-SIS scale and an explicit reference to duration of the target behavior (percent group) and one that did not include percentage anchors nor a reference to duration of the target behavior (no percent group). Participants viewed nine brief video clips and rated student behavior using one of the two DBR-SIS formats. Rating accuracy was determined by calculating the absolute difference between participant ratings and two criterion measures: systematic direct observation scores and DBR-SIS expert ratings. Statistically significant differences between groups were found on only two occasions, pertaining to ratings of academically engaged behavior. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Evaluating the technical adequacy of DBR-SIS in tri-annual behavioral screening: A multisite investigation

The implementation of multi-tiered systems in schools necessitates the use of screening assessments which produce valid and reliable data to identify students in need of tiered supports. Data derived from these screening assessments may be evaluated according to their classification accuracy, or the degree to which cut scores correctly identify individuals as “at-risk” or “not-at-risk.” The current study examined the performance of mean scores derived from over 1700 students in Grades 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, and 8 using Direct Behavior Rating—Single Item Scales. Students were rated across three time points (Fall, Winter, Spring) by their teachers in three areas: (a) academically engaged behavior, (b) disruptive behavior, and (c) respectful behavior. Classification accuracy indices and comparisons among behaviors were derived using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analyses, partial area under the curve (pAUC) tests, and bootstrapping methods to evaluate the degree to which mean behavior ratings accurately identified students who demonstrated elevated behavioral symptomology on the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System. Results indicated that optimal cut-scores for mean behavior ratings and a composite rating demonstrated high levels of specificity, sensitivity, and negative predictive value, with sensitivity point estimates for optimal cut-scores exceeding .70 for individual behaviors and .75 for composite scores across grade groups and time points.

Direct behavior rating as a school-based behavior universal screener: Replication across sites

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the utility of Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scale (DBR–SIS) targets of disruptive, engaged, and respectful behavior within school-based universal screening. Participants included 31 first-, 25 fourth-, and 23 seventh-grade teachers and their 1108 students, sampled from 13 schools across three geographic locations (northeast, southeast, and midwest). Each teacher rated approximately 15 of their students across three measures, including DBR–SIS, the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007), and the Student Risk Screening Scale (Drummond, 1994). Moderate to high bivariate correlations and area under the curve statistics supported concurrent validity and diagnostic accuracy of DBR–SIS. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses indicated that although respectful behavior cut scores recommended for screening remained constant across grade levels, cut scores varied for disruptive behavior and academic engaged behavior. Specific cut scores for first grade included 2 or less for disruptive behavior, 7 or greater for academically engaged behavior, and 9 or greater for respectful behavior. In fourth and seventh grades, cut scores changed to 1 or less for disruptive behavior and 8 or greater for academically engaged behavior, and remained the same for respectful behavior. Findings indicated that disruptive behavior was particularly appropriate for use in screening at first grade, whereas academically engaged behavior was most appropriate at both fourth and seventh grades. Each set of cut scores was associated with acceptable sensitivity (.79–.87), specificity (.71–.82), and negative predictive power (.94–.96), but low positive predictive power (.43–.44). DBR–SIS multiple gating procedures, through which students were only considered at risk overall if they exceeded cut scores on 2 or more DBR–SIS targets, were also determined acceptable in first and seventh grades, as the use of both disruptive behavior and academically engaged behavior in defining risk yielded acceptable conditional probability indices. Overall, the current findings are consistent with previous research, yielding further support for the DBR–SIS as a universal screener. Limitations, implications for practice, and directions for future research are discussed.

Direct behavior rating as a school-based behavior screener for elementary and middle grades

The purpose of this study was to investigate how Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) involving targets of academically engaged, disruptive, and respectful behaviors function in school-based screening assessment. Participants included 831 students in kindergarten through eighth grades who attended schools in the northeastern United States. Teachers provided behavior ratings for a sample of students in their classrooms on the DBR-SIS, the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007), and the Student Risk Screening Scale (Drummond, 1994). Given variations in rating procedures to accommodate scheduling differences across grades, analysis was conducted separately for elementary school and middle school grade levels. Results suggested that the recommended cut scores, the combination of behavior targets, and the resulting conditional probability indices varied depending on grade level grouping (lower elementary, upper elementary, middle). For example, for the lower elementary grade level grouping, a combination of disruptive behavior (cut score=2) and academically engaged behavior (cut score=8) was considered to offer the best balance among indices of diagnostic accuracy, whereas a cut score of 1 for disruptive behavior and 8 for academically engaged behavior were recommended for the upper elementary school grade level grouping and cut scores of 1 and 9, respectively, were suggested for middle school grade level grouping. Generally, DBR-SIS cut scores considered optimal for screening using single or combined targets including academically engaged behavior and disruptive behavior by offering a reasonable balance of indices for sensitivity (.51–.90), specificity (.47–.83), negative predictive power (.94–.98), and positive predictive power (.14–.41). The single target of respectful behavior performed poorly across all grade level groups, and performance of DBR-SIS targets was relatively better in the elementary school than middle school grade level groups. Overall, results supported that disruptive behavior is highly important in evaluating risk status in lower grade levels and that academically engaged behavior becomes more pertinent as students reach higher grade levels. Limitations, future directions, and implications are discussed.

Direct behavior rating scales as screeners: A preliminary investigation of diagnostic accuracy in elementary school.

This study presents an evaluation of the diagnostic accuracy and concurrent validity of Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scales for use in school-based behavior screening of second-grade students. Results indicated that each behavior target was a moderately to highly accurate predictor of behavioral risk. Optimal universal screening cut scores were also identified for each scale, with results supporting reduced false positive rates through the simultaneous use of multiple scales.

An Evaluation of a Classwide Intervention Package Involving Self-Management and a Group Contingency on Classroom Behavior of Middle School Students

The effectiveness of an intervention package involving self-management and a group contingency at increasing appropriate classroom behaviors was evaluated in a sample of middle school students. Participants included all students in each of the 3 eighth-grade general education classrooms and their teachers. The intervention package included strategies recommended as part of best practice in classroom management to involve both building skill (self-management) and reinforcing appropriate behavior (group contingency). Data sources involved assessment of targeted behaviors using Direct Behavior Rating—single item scales completed by students and systematic direct observations completed by external observers. Outcomes suggested that, on average, student behavior moderately improved during intervention as compared to baseline when examining observational data for off-task behavior. Results for Direct Behavior Rating data were not as pronounced across all targets and classrooms in suggesting improvement for students. Limitations and future directions, along with implications for school-based practitioners working in middle school general education settings, are discussed.

Direct Behavior Rating: A Review of the Issues and Research in Its Development

The conceptual foundation for Direct Behavior Rating as a behavior assessment method is reviewed. A contemporary definition of Direct Behavior Rating is framed as combining strengths of systematic direct observation and behavior rating scales, which may result in a usable and defensible assessment tool for educators engaged in formative purposes. The rationale behind development of Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scales as general outcome measures for school-based behavioral risk is provided. Research related to development of instrumentation and procedures for Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scales is discussed, along with implications for future research and practice.

An investigation of the generalizability and dependability of Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) to measure academic engagement and disruptive behavior of middle school students

A total of 4 raters, including 2 teachers and 2 research assistants, used Direct Behavior Rating Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) to measure the academic engagement and disruptive behavior of 7 middle school students across multiple occasions. Generalizability study results for the full model revealed modest to large magnitudes of variance associated with persons (students), occasions of measurement (day), and associated interactions. However, an unexpectedly low proportion of the variance in DBR data was attributable to the facet of rater, as well as a negligible variance component for the facet of rating occasion nested within day (10-min interval within a class period). Results of a reduced model and subsequent decision studies specific to individual rater and rater type (research assistant and teacher) suggested degree of reliability-like estimates differed substantially depending on rater. Overall, findings supported previous recommendations that in the absence of estimates of rater reliability and firm recommendations regarding rater training, ratings obtained from DBR-SIS, and subsequent analyses, be conducted within rater. Additionally, results suggested that when selecting a teacher rater, the person most likely to substantially interact with target students during the specified observation period may be the best choice.