Direct Anthropometry Research Articles

Photoanthropometric study: are non-professional photographs suitable for objective and reliable analysis of facial features?

The face has been widely investigated using professionally taken frontal and lateral photographs, however, there is a lack of studies of non-professional facial photographs. It is not known if they could be suitable for facial analysis. The analysis of non-professional photographs could allow the performance of cost- effective longitudinal studies. To determine if non-professional photographs could be used for a reliable analysis of facial features. The frontal profiles of 18-21-year-olds (35 males, 39 females) were measured by direct anthropometry, in addition, professional photographs were taken and non-professional photographs were obtained. Anthropometric landmarks were superimposed on those photographs. The indices calculated on the basis of the measurements of direct anthropometry and both types of photographs were compared. The comparison of the measurements of direct anthropometry and professional photographs showed no difference between 14 out of 25 male and 10 out of 25 female facial indices (p > 0.05) after comparing the results of direct anthropometry with those of non-professional photographs, no difference was found in 8 out of 25 male and 7 out of 25 female indices. These indices were mostly composed of vertical parameters and eye measurements. Vertical facial dimensions and eye measurements may not only be used interchangeably for both facial photographs and direct anthropometry, but may also be suitable for objective and reliable facial analyses.

Photogrammetry is a useful tool to assess the aesthetic outcome after excision and reconstruction of the nose skin tumors

BackgroundobjectivePost-oncological nasal reconstruction presents both aesthetic and functional challenges. While established methods exist for quantitatively evaluating functional results following surgery, equivalent systems for assessing aesthetic outcomes are lacking. Three-dimensional (3D) photogrammetry, already used in maxillofacial and orthodontic surgery for aesthetic evaluation, overcomes some limitations of traditional methods like direct anthropometry. However, its applicability in oncological facial reconstruction has not yet been explored. In our study, we applied the 3dMDtrio™ system for the quantitative analysis of line and surface modifications following nasal reconstruction. MethodsWe conducted a prospective observational study enrolling patients with skin neoplasms located on the nose undergoing surgical excision and reconstruction. Using the 3dMDtrio™ system, we measured the dimensions and projections of nasal surfaces and the positions of specific landmarks before and after surgery. The surface measurements were then correlated with aesthetic evaluations performed by three plastic surgeons, not involved in the procedure, using a 5-point Likert scale. ResultsWe included 33 patients with a mean age of 71 years, ranging from 40 to 94. We obtained complete documentation of all postoperative measurements for 21 patients. We observed significant changes in the positions of the landmarks post-surgery, limited to the right ala and nasion. The average nasal surface area was 4674.41 mm2 ± 477.24 mm2 before surgery and 4667.95 mm2 ± 474.12 mm2 after surgery, with no significant discrepancies. The evaluation using the Likert scale revealed an average score of 3.04 ± 0.48, with a significant negative correlation to the measured surface changes. ConclusionOur findings suggest that 3D photogrammetry can be considered a valid method for objectively assessing volumetric changes associated with post-oncological nasal reconstructive surgery.

Evaluation of a Structured Light Scanner for 3D Facial Imaging: A Comparative Study with Direct Anthropometry.

This study evaluates the accuracy and repeatability of craniofacial measurements with a 3D light scanner, specifically the EINSTAR scanner, in comparison to traditional caliper measurements for facial anthropometry. Eleven volunteers were assessed by two examiners, one experienced and one inexperienced, who performed direct caliper measurements and indirect measurements using the scanner. Results indicated minimal differences between caliper and scanner results, with overall high accuracy and reliability demonstrated by correlation coefficients. Despite the slightly longer scanning time, the benefits of 3D imaging, including detailed surface mapping and virtual modeling, justify its integration into clinical practice, particularly in maxillofacial surgery and craniofacial assessment. Craniofacial measurements obtained with the EINSTAR scanner showed excellent reliability and accuracy, which qualifies this method for clinical and scientific use.

Accuracy of 3D facial scans: a comparison of three different scanning system in an in vivo study

BackgroundThe aim of the study was to compare the accuracy and reproducibility of three different 3D facial scanning systems, relying, respectively, on stereophotogrammetry, structured light and a smartphone app and camera.MethodsThirty subjects have been scanned with three different facial scanning systems, stereophotogrammetry, structured light and a smartphone app and camera. Linear measurements were compared with direct anthropometries measured on the patient's face, while the study of areas (forehead, tip of the nose, chin, right and left cheek) was evaluated by overlapping scans using the Geomagic Control X program. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS v28 software.ResultsThe ANOVA test was used to compare linear distances and direct anthropometry measurements, revealing statically significant values for all distances investigated, especially for the Face Hunter scanner, except for the Prn–Pog′ distance (p = 0.092). The three facial scans were superimposed pairwise almost the 100 per cent of the overlapping areas fell within the tolerance limits for all three comparisons analysed. The chin was the most accurately reproduced, with no differences among scanners, while the forehead proved to be the least accurately reproduced by all scanners.ConclusionsAll three acquisition systems proved to be effective in capturing 3D images of the face, with the exception of the Face Hunter scanner, that produced statistically significant differences in linear measurements for the distances Tr–Na′ and Zyg–Zyg with respect to direct anthropometric measurements.

Can smartphones be used for routine dental clinical application? A validation study for using smartphone-generated 3D facial images

ObjectivesTo compare the accuracy of smartphone-generated three-dimensional (3D) facial images to that of direct anthropometry (DA) and 3dMD with the aim of assessing the validity and reliability of smartphone-generated 3D facial images for routine clinical applications. Materials and methodsTwenty-five anthropometric soft-tissue facial landmarks were labelled manually on 22 orthognathic surgery patients (11 males and 11 females; mean age 26.2 ± 5.3 years). For each labelled face, two imaging operations were performed using two different surface imaging systems: 3dMDface and Bellus3D FaceApp. Next, 42 inter-landmark facial measurements amongst the identified facial landmarks were measured directly on each labelled face and also digitally on 3D facial images. The measurements obtained from smartphone-generated 3D facial images (SGI) were statistically compared with those from DA and 3dMD. ResultsSGI had slightly higher measurement values than DA and 3dMD, but there was no statistically significant difference between the mean values of inter-landmark measures across the three methods. Clinically acceptable differences (≤3 mm or ≤5°) were observed for 67 % and 74 % of measurements with good agreement between DA and SGI, and 3dMD and SGI, respectively. An overall small systematic bias of ± 0.2 mm was observed between the three methods. Furthermore, the mean absolute difference between DA and SGI methods was highest for linear (1.41 ± 0.33 mm) as well as angular measurements (3.07 ± 0.73°). ConclusionsSGI demonstrated fair trueness compared to DA and 3dMD. The central region and flat areas of the face in SGI are more accurate. Despite this, SGI have limited clinical application, and the panfacial accuracy of the SGI would be more desirable from a clinical application standpoint. Clinical significanceThe usage of SGI in clinical practice for region-specific macro-proportional facial assessment involving central and flat regions of the face or for patient education purposes, which does not require accuracy within 3 mm and 5° can be considered.

Somatotype Characteristics of Bulgarian Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

The aim of the present study was to determine the somatotype of adult Bulgarian patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Sixty male and 60 female patients aged 20 to 40 years were involved in the study. A sample of healthy Bulgarian individuals (40 females and 40 males) in the same age range as the patients was used as a control group. The measurements were done by direct anthropometry. The Heath–Carter anthropometric method was used to rate the somatotype components of each participant. The mean somatotype of the female diabetic patients was mesomorphic endomorph (endo 5.37; meso 4.51; ecto 1.42). The endomorphic component was dominant, followed by the mesomorphic component and the ectomorphic component with the lowest rating. The mean somatotype of the control females was balanced endomorph (endo 3.74; meso 2.81; ecto 2.98). The endomorphic component was dominant, but the mesomorphic and ectomorphic components were equally presented. The values of endomorphic and mesomorphic components were significantly higher in the female patients than in the healthy women. In males, both the diabetic patients and control individuals presented with endomorphic mesomorph somatotype: patients (endo 3.94; meso 4.66; ecto 2.37) and controls (endo 4.34; meso 5.19; ecto 2.22). The mesomorphic component was dominant, followed by the endomorphic component and the ectomorphic component was with the lowest rating. The mesomorphic component was significantly greater in the healthy males than in the male patients.

Direct Anthropometry Overestimates Cranial Asymmetry-3D Digital Photography Proves to Be a Reliable Alternative.

This study compared manual and digital measurements of plagiocephaly and brachycephaly in infants and evaluated whether three-dimensional (3D) digital photography measurements can be used as a superior alternative in everyday clinical practice. A total of 111 infants (103 with plagiocephalus and 8 with brachycephalus) were included in this study. Head circumference, length and width, bilateral diagonal head length, and bilateral distance from the glabella to the tragus were assessed by manual assessment (tape measure and anthropometric head calipers) and 3D photographs. Subsequently, the cranial index (CI) and cranial vault asymmetry index (CVAI) were calculated. Measured cranial parameters and CVAI were significantly more precise using 3D digital photography. Manually acquired cranial vault symmetry parameters were at least 5 mm lower than digital measurements. Differences in CI between the two measuring methods did not reach significance, whereas the calculated CVAI showed a 0.74-fold decrease using 3D digital photography and was highly significant (p < 0.001). Using the manual method, CVAI calculations overestimated asymmetry, and cranial vault symmetry parameters were measured too low, contributing to a misrepresentation of the actual anatomical situation. Considering consequential errors in therapy choices, we suggest implementing 3D photography as the primary tool for diagnosing deformational plagiocephaly and positional head deformations.

Introduction and validation of an automatic and low-cost three-dimensional facial imaging system: a comparison to direct anthropometry and Vectra H1.

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging is a powerful tool for the analysis of soft tissue morphology. 3D photogrammetry outperforms conventional photogrammetric methods and gains popularity among plastic surgeons. However, commercial 3D imaging systems bundled with analytical software are costly. This study intends to introduce and validate an automatic, low-cost, and user-friendly 3D facial scanner. An automatic and low-cost 3D facial scanning system was developed. The system consisted of a 3D facial scanner running automatically on a sliding track and a 3D data processing tool. Fifteen human subjects underwent 3D facial imaging by the novel scanner. Eighteen anthropometric parameters were measured on the 3D virtual models and compared with caliper measurements (the gold standard). Further, the novel 3D scanner was compared to the commonly used commercial 3D facial scanner Vectra H1. Heat map analysis was used to evaluate the deviation between the 3D models obtained by the two imaging systems. The 3D photogrammetric results were highly correlated with the direct measurement results (P<0.001). The mean absolute differences (MADs) were less than 2 mm. Bland-Altman analysis indicated that, for 17 of the 18 parameters, the largest differences within the 95% limits of agreement margin were within the 2.0 mm clinical acceptance. Heat map analysis showed the average distance between the 3D virtual models was 0.15 mm, with a root mean square of 0.71 mm. The novel 3D facial scanning system is proven to be highly reliable. It provides a good alternative to commercial 3D facial scanners.

3D Computed Tomography vs. 2D radiography: comparison of 3D direct anthropometry with 2D norm calculations and analysis of differences in soft tissue measurements.

The aim of this study was twofold: (1) to compare soft tissue measurements of the same distances obtained from 3D computed tomography reconstructions with 2D cephalometric radiograms, (2) to compare data from 3D measurements from direct anthropometry and 2D "norms" for the facial measurements. A total of 40 Caucasian patients that had their CBCT scans for various dental and dentoskeletal reasons were enrolled in this study. All the patients had large field of view (from the forehead to the chin). The data were stored in DICOM format and imported into a software for 3D reconstructions. After 3D facial soft tissue model generation, the distances between 18 soft tissue points were measured. The 3D soft tissue analysis was performed, and the facial indices were calculated. The mean 3D values were compared with 2D measurements performed on lateral cephalograms and Arnett's and Farkas' norms. The measurements were statistically compared using Student's t-test. Assessments from 2D and 3D measurements showed no statistical difference except for the distance Pogonion (for both male and female) and Labial superius prominence (females) to the True Vertical Line in 2D /Plane in case of 3D measurements. There was a significant difference between all 3D measurements and Arnett's and anthropometric Farkas' "norms". The mean difference between Farkas' "norms" and 3D measurements was within 3 mm for 70% of measurements. According to the results, 3D soft tissue analysis allows for complete diagnostic determination. The 3D "norms" are to be verified on a greater sample.

Use of a Three-dimensional Smartphone Scanner in the Quantitative Analysis of Repaired Unilateral Cleft Lip during the Coronavirus Disease Pandemic

Twelve facial measurements were acquired after cleft lip surgery in three female and seven male patients (aged 11-29 months) with unilateral cleft lip using direct anthropometry and a 3D smartphone scanner. The accuracy and precision of the 3D smartphone scanner were assessed through comparative analyses (t test and Bland-Altman plot). The anthropometric data obtained using the 3D smartphone scanner matched the direct measurement data. The linear measurements did not differ significantly between two-dimensional and 3D modalities (P > 0.05). The intraobserver reliabilities of the two-dimensional smartphone scanner of the first and second observers were high (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.876-0.993 and Cronbach alpha 0.920-0.998) and moderate to high (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.839-0.996 and Cronbach alpha 0.940-0.996), respectively. Inter-observer data showed an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.876-0.981 and a Cronbach α of 0.960-0.997. The 3D smartphone scanner is effective, efficient, economical, quick, and feasible for facial measurements of patients with unilateral cleft lip and is a viable alternative to direct two-dimensional measurements.

The accuracy (trueness and precision) of Bellus3DARC-7 and an in-vivo analysis of intra and inter-examiner reliability of digital and manual anthropometry

Abstract Background Three dimensional (3D) facial imaging is becoming a popular method of facial analysis and a means of anthropometry. There is potential for 3D imaging to provide enough diagnostic information to parallel lateral cephalograms, which could, in time, reduce the need for radiation exposure to patients. The present study aimed to assess the accuracy of the Bellus3D ARC-7 (Bellus) camera by comparing the measurements of soft tissue facial landmarks obtained from Bellus scans to the measurements taken using Vernier callipers. Method Nineteen anatomical points were located on four subjects using a standard black ballpoint pen on a white, circular sticker. Distances were measured between these points using digital callipers, with the subject in a resting pose. This was repeated twice by two examiners for each subject. Two examiners subsequently performed measurements of each subject in a smiling pose. Following landmark identification, images were captured under standard conditions, using the Bellus camera. The same measurements were obtained digitally, repeated twice by two examiners for each subject in both resting and smiling poses. Results There was high precision in repeated measurements on the digital models, with less than 1.5 mm deviation between measurements. Both intra-examiner and inter-examiner reproducibility were greater following the digital measurements compared to manual measurements, with 100% of the digital measurements of landmarks falling within a set threshold deviation of ≤1.5 mm. When comparing the manual and digital measurements, the greatest deviations (&gt;1.0 mm) occurred in regions around the cheeks and lower third of the face, while the measurements for the ears and midline structures (forehead and nose bridge) deviated the least (≤1.0 mm). This was demonstrated in models at rest and smiling. Conclusions The Bellus system produced an accurate and true image of the face from which reproducible measurements can be made within and between examiners. 3D facial images from the Bellus3D ARC-7 system were comparable to direct anthropometry, therefore the use of 3D facial scanning in orthodontics for diagnosis and treatment planning appears promising.

Accuracy of RGB-D camera-based and stereophotogrammetric facial scanners: a comparative study

ObjectivesThis study aimed to evaluate and compare the accuracy and inter-operator reliability of a low-cost red-green-blue-depth (RGB-D) camera-based facial scanner (Bellus3D Arc7) with a stereophotogrammetry facial scanner (3dMD) and to explore the possibility of the former as a clinical substitute for the latter. MethodsA mannequin head was selected as the research object. In the RGB-D camera-based facial scanner group, the head was continuously scanned five times using an RGB-D camera-based facial scanner (Bellus3D Arc7), and the outcome data of each scan was then imported into CAD software (MeshLab) to reconstruct three-dimensional (3D) facial photographs. In the stereophotogrammetry facial scanner group, the mannequin head was scanned with a stereophotogrammetry facial scanner (3dMD). Selected parameters were directly measured on the reconstructed 3D virtual faces using a CAD software. The same parameters were then measured directly on the mannequin head using the direct anthropometry (DA) method as the gold standard for later comparison. The accuracy of the facial scanners was evaluated in terms of trueness and precision. Trueness was evaluated by comparing the measurement results of the two groups with each other and with that of DA using equivalence tests and average absolute deviations, while precision and inter-operator reliability were assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). A 3D facial mesh deviation between the two groups was also calculated for further reference using a 3D metrology software (GOM inspect pro). ResultsIn terms of trueness, the average absolute deviations between RGB-D camera-based and stereophotogrammetry facial scanners, between RGB-D camera-based facial scanner and DA, and between stereophotogrammetry facial scanner and DA were statistically equivalent at 0.50±0.27 mm, 0.61±0.42 mm, and 0.28±0.14 mm, respectively. Equivalence test results confirmed that their equivalence was within clinical requirements (<1 mm). The ICC for each parameter was approximately 0.999 in terms of precision and inter-operator reliability. A 3D facial mesh analysis suggested that the deviation between the two groups was 0.37±0.01 mm. ConclusionsFor facial scanners, an accuracy of <1 mm is commonly considered clinically acceptable. Both the RGB-D camera-based and stereophotogrammetry facial scanners in this study showed acceptable trueness, high precision, and inter-operator reliability. A low-cost RGB-D camera-based facial scanner could be an eligible clinical substitute for traditional stereophotogrammetry. Clinical SignificanceThe low-cost RGB-D camera-based facial scanner showed clinically acceptable trueness, high precision, and inter-operator reliability; thus, it could be an eligible clinical substitute for traditional stereophotogrammetry.

Inter-Incisive Index in Bulgarians and its Application in Dentistry

In recent years, aesthetic dentistry has become a major focus for the public. Facial attractiveness plays a key role on modern society and the creation of harmonious smile is an aim for every dentist. The objective of this study was to define certain values of the inter-incisive index in Bulgarians, the sexual dimorphism and bilateral asymmetry and to verify differences of this index between Bulgarians and other Balkan populations. The present study included 121 males and 111 females of Bulgarian origin aged 20- 40 years. Mesiodistal dimensions of maxillary central and lateral incisors were measured by Dentistry Sliding Vernier Caliper. We used the technique of direct anthropometry, modified by Prof. Y. Yordanov. We calculated the inter-incisive index as ratio of the mesiodistal dimension of maxillary lateral incisor to the mesiodistal dimension of the maxillary central incisor. The measurements were analyzed with SPSS 23. The level of statistical significance was set at P< 0.05. The inter-incisive index showed no statistically significant differences between left and right side of the dental arch in both sexes. We did not find statistically significant differences between males and females as well. On the other hand, we found statistically significant differences in MD values of incisors between Bulgarians and other Balkan nations. Inter-incisive index shows no sexual dimorphism and bilateral asymmetry in Bulgarians. This can be helpful in aesthetic dentistry, in prosthodontics and in orthodontic treatment planning.

Precision and accuracy assessment of single and multicamera three-dimensional photogrammetry compared with direct anthropometry.

To assess the precision and accuracy of single-camera photogrammetry (SCP) and multicamera photogrammetry (MCP) compared with direct anthropometry (DA). A total of 30 participants were recruited, and 17 soft tissue landmarks were identified and used to complete a total of 16 measurements. Using SCP and MCP, two three-dimensional (3D) images were acquired from each participant. All 3D measurements and direct measurements were measured twice by the same operator to assess intraexaminer repeatability. Intraclass coefficients (ICCs) were used to evaluate intraexaminer repeatability and interexaminer agreement of the methods. Nonparametric bootstrap analyses were used to compare the means of the measurements among the three methods. All three methods showed excellent intraexaminer repeatability (ICCs > 0.90), except interpupillary distance (ICC = 0.86) measured by SCP. Both SCP and MCP showed excellent interexaminer agreement (ICCs > 0.90), except interpupillary distance (ICC = 0.79), left gonion-pogonion (ICC = 0.74), and columella-subnasale-labrale superior angle (ICC = 0.86) measured by SCP. Overall, there was good agreement between methods, except for columella-subnasale-labrale superior angle (ICC = 0.40) between SCP and MCP. Both SCP and MCP techniques were found to be reliable and valid options for 3D facial imaging. SCP produced slightly larger mean values for several measurements, but the differences were within a clinically acceptable range. Because of the larger margin of errors, measurements including the gonial area and subnasale should be assessed with caution.

Facial scanning technologies in the era of digital workflow: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.

The aim of this network meta-analysis is to evaluate the accuracy of various face-scanning technologies in the market, with respect to the different dimensions of space (x, y, and z axes). Furthermore, attention will be paid to the type of technologies currently used and to the best practices for high-quality scan acquisition. The review was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines and its updates. A thorough search was performed using the digital databases MEDLINE, PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials by entering research lines or various combinations of free words. The main keywords used during the search process were "photogrammetry", "laser scanner", "optical scanner", "3D", and "face". None of the included technologies significantly deviated from direct anthropometry. The obtained mean differences in the distances between the considered landmarks range from 1.10 to -1.74 mm. Limiting the movements of the patient and scanner allows for more accurate facial scans with all the technologies involved. Active technologies such as laser scanners (LS), structured light (SL), and infrared structured light (ISL) have accuracy comparable to that of static stereophotogrammetry while being more cost-effective and less time-consuming.

Accuracy of 3-dimensional stereophotogrammetry: Comparison of the 3dMD and Bellus3D facial scanning systems with one another and with direct anthropometry

The objective of this study was to compare the accuracy of 3-dimensional (3D) digital facial photographs taken by the Bellus3D Face Camera Pro (Bellus3D) (Bellus3D Inc, Los Gatos, Calif) and the 3dMDface system (3dMD) (3dMD Inc, Atlanta, Ga) with one another and with direct anthropometry (DA). A mannequin head was selected as the research object. Twenty facial landmarks were labeled on the basis of the 8 interlandmark distances and 5 angles that were defined. A 150-mm digital Vernier caliper (Mitutoyo Inc, Tokyo, Japan) with an accuracy of 0.02mm was applied to directly measure the interlandmark distances, and the angles were calculated according to the law of cosines. All the measurements were conducted 3 times by each operator under identical conditions. Then, each scanner was used to acquire 3D photographs 5 times, generating 10 digital stereophotographs. Linear distances and angles were measured on the 3D facial photographs reconstructed with open-source MeshLab software (ISTI [Italian National Research Council], Rome, Italy). Each linear distance and angle were measured 3 times by 1 operator, and 3 examiners conducted the measurements independently. To obtain the trueness, equivalence tests were applied to compare the measurements of the 2 scanners and DA. In addition, the average absolute deviations were calculated to directly compare the trueness of 3 methods (Bellus3D vs 3dMD vs DA). Finally, the intraclass correlation coefficient was used to assess the interobserver agreement and the precision of 2 scanners. As for the trueness, 7 out of 8 of the linear distance measurements (N-Pn, Sn-Pog, ORE-IRE, OLE-ILE, RLC-RMC, LLC-LMC, and CR-CL) and 3 out of 5 of the angular measurements (MLA, NFA, and INI) obtained by 3dMD were equivalent to those obtained by DA. Five out of 8 measurements (N-Pn, Sn-Pog, RLC-RMC, LLC-LMC, and CR-CL) and 1 out of 5 of the angular measurements (MLA) obtained by Bellus3D were equivalent to the measurements obtained with DA. All but 3 of the measurements (ORE-IRE, NFA, and INI) obtained with Bellus3D were equivalent to 3dMD. The mean absolute difference between 3dMD and DA was 0.36±0.20mm and 0.45°±0.56°; the deviation between Bellus3D and DA was 0.61±0.47mm and 0.99°±0.61°; and the deviation between Bellus3D and 3dMD was 0.38±0.37mm and 0.62°±0.39°. Regarding the precision of the 2 scanners, the intraclass correlation coefficient value of 3dMD was approximately 1.00, and that of Bellus3D was 0.99. The interobserver agreement for each linear and angular measurement was 0.99. The trueness of each scanner was clinically acceptable for diagnosis and treatment planning. The precision of 3D photographs obtained by 3dMD and Bellus3D showed good scanning repeatability. The interobserver agreement between the 3 operators was rated as excellent (0.99).

Accuracy and Reliability of Kinect Motion Sensing Input Device’s 3D Models: A Comparison to Direct Anthropometry and 2D Photogrammetry

AIM: This study aims to evaluate the accuracy and reliability of Kinect motion sensing input device’s three-dimensional (3D) models by comparing it with direct anthropometry and digital 2D photogrammetry. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six profiles and four frontal parameters were directly measured on the faces of 80 participants. The same measurements were repeated using two-dimensional (2D) photogrammetry and (3D) images obtained from Kinect device. Another observer made the same measurements for 30% of the images obtained with 3D technique, and interobserver reproducibility was evaluated for 3D images. Intraobserver reproducibility was evaluated. Statistical analysis was conducted using the paired samples t-test, interclass correlation coefficient, and Bland-Altman limits of agreement. RESULTS: The highest mean difference was 0.0084 mm between direct measurement and photogrammetry, 0.027 mm between direct measurement and 3D Kinect’s models, and 0.018 mm between photogrammetry and 3D Kinect’s. The lowest agreement value was 0.016 in the all parameter between the photogrammetry and 3D Kinect’s methods. Agreement between the two observers varied from 0.999 Sn-Me to 1 with the rest of linear measurements. CONCLUSION: Measurements done using 3D Images obtained from Kinect device indicate that it may be an accurate and reliable imaging method for use in orthodontics. It also provides an easy low-cost 3D imaging technique that has become increasingly popular in clinical settings, offering advantages for surgical planning and outcome evaluation.

Validity and reproducibility of the 3D VECTRA photogrammetric surface imaging system for the maxillofacial anthropometric measurement on cleft patients

To validate the accuracy and reproducibility of linear measurements of three-dimensional (3D) images and to compare the measurements with the direct anthropometry method on cleft lip and palate (CLP) patients. Nineteen linear facial measurements were derived from 16 standardized surface landmarks obtained from 37 cleft patients (20 males, 17 females; mean age 23.84 years, standard deviation ± 6.02). They were taken manually with calipers and were compared with the digitally calculated distance on the 3D images captured using the VECTRA-M5 360° Imaging System with pre-marked landmarks. Another pair of 19 linear measurements were computed on the 3D images 2 weeks apart for intra- and inter-observer agreements. Statistical analyses used were paired t test, the Bland-Altman analysis, and the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) index. Most of the linear measurements showed no statistically significant differences between the proposed method and direct anthropometry linear measurements. Nevertheless, bias of the 3D imaging system is present in the linear measurements of the nose width and the upper vermillion height. The measurements' mean biases were within 2 mm, but the 95% limit of agreement was more than 2 mm. Intra- and inter-observer measurements generally showed good reproducibility. Four inter-observer measurements, the upper and lower face heights, nose width, and pronasale to left alar base were clinically significant. Measurements obtained from this 3D imaging system are valid and reproducible for evaluating CLP patients. The system is suitable to be used in a clinical setting for cleft patients. However, training of the operator is strictly advisable.

Uniform 3D meshes to establish normative facial averages of healthy infants during the first year of life

Three-dimensional (3D) surface imaging systems are replacing direct anthropometry as the preferred method for capturing facial soft-tissues. Aims of this study were: (1) to develop normative average 3D faces of healthy infants aged 3, 6, 9, and 12 months and (2) to describe normative average 3D facial growth data in infants aged 3 to 12 months. Three-dimensional images of 50 healthy children were acquired at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age using the 3dMDcranial system. Four average faces with uniform meshes (3, 6, 9, and 12 months) were developed and registered based on the children’s reference frames. Distance maps of growth of the total facial surface and of the nose, upper lip, chin, forehead and cheeks for the intervals 3 to 6 months, 6 to 9 months, and 9 to 12 months of age were calculated. Mean growth of the total facial surface was 3.9 mm (standard deviation [SD] 1.2 mm), 3.5 mm (SD 0.9 mm), and 1.6 mm (SD 0.7 mm) at 3 to 6 months, 6 to 9 months, and 9 to 12 months, respectively. Regarding the selected regions of the face, the mean growth of the nose and upper lip were the largest (3.7 mm and 3.6 mm, respectively) between 6 and 9 months of age. The mean growth of the forehead, cheeks and chin were the largest (5.4 mm, 3.2, and 4.7 mm, respectively) between 3 and 6 months of age. For all facial regions, growth clearly diminished from 9 to 12 months of age. Normative data on the growth of the full face, nose, upper lip, chin, forehead and cheeks are presented. Such data can be used in future studies to identify the effectiveness of treatment of orofacial deformities such as orofacial clefts during the first year of life.

High-Fidelity Anthropometric Facial Measurements Can Be Obtained From a Single Stereophotograph From the Vectra H1 3-Dimensional Camera.

Anthropometry is a well-established means of measuring facial morphology. Although reliable, direct anthropometry can be time-consuming and not conducive to a busy clinical practice. The Vectra H1 handheld stereophotogrammetric system requires 3 stereophotographs taken from different perspectives to generate a three-dimensional (3D) surface. The time needed to take the 3 stereophotographs can increase the possibility of involuntary movements, precluding its use to assess young patients. To overcome this limitation, we evaluated if accurate linear facial measurements can be obtained from a single stereophotograph and compare these to the measurements taken by direct anthropometry. Twenty pediatric patients, aged 0 to 10 years, who were undergoing minor surgical procedures at Johns Hopkins All Children's Hospital were recruited. Fourteen linear facial distances were obtained from each participant using direct anthropometry under general anesthesia. These same distances were measured using Mirror 3D analysis. Intraclass correlation was used to determine intrarater reliability on duplicate 3D images. Correlation coefficients between 3D imaging in frontal view and direct anthropometric measurements were excellent for 13 measures taken, ranging from 0.8 (subnasale to columella and subnasale to stomion superius) to 0.98 (nasion to subnasale and subnasale to labiale superius). Correlation coefficients between submental view and direct anthropometric measurements were excellent for 13 measures as well, ranging from 0.77 (subnasale to columella) to 0.98 (nasion to subnasale). Linear anthropometric measurements taken from 3D surfaces generated from a single stereophotograph correlate closely with direct anthropometric measures. This improves workflow and applicability of anthropometric studies to our youngest patients.