Direct Accretion Research Articles

Flight tests results of a Fiber Bragg Gratings based ice sensor

Icing has been an aeronautical industry problem for safety and for energy consumption save from the beginning of aviation. It affects the safety reducing the lift, decreasing the stall angle of attack, affecting the aircraft stability and reducing the control efficiency. The European project SENS4ICE (2019–2023) introduces a new technology based on hybridization of different detection techniques, combining indirect ice sensing with direct, using atmospheric and ice accretion sensors. In the present work a study about a Fiber Optic Detector based on latent heat that uses a Fiber Bragg Grating for measuring the surface temperature. The Fiber Optic Detector (FOD) was tested in a SAFIRE Flight Testing Platform ATR42 during 40 h of Flight testing, having Liquid Water encounters in all flights. The sensor performance and its ability for measuring the icing severity is evaluated in the paper, showing results in a representative Flight test.During Flight Test, different icing conditions were seen, adapting the detection and severity evaluations to the data seen with other reference atmospheric sensors. For ice detection Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) was used using different levels in order to detect all the possible events during the Flight test. The DWT ice severity assessment results were compared with a Messinger Model and with the DLR Nevzorov data in order to evaluate the precision and the sensor performance.

Stellar populations and the origin of thick disks in AURIGA simulations

Context. Recent integral-field spectroscopy observations of edge-on galaxies have led to significant progress in our knowledge of the ages and chemical compositions of thick disks. However, the origin of thick disks and their evolutionary connection with thin disks is still a matter of debate. Aims. We provide new insights into this topic by connecting the stellar populations of thick disks at redshift z = 0 with their past formation and growth in 24 Milky Way-mass galaxies from the AURIGA zoom-in cosmological simulations. We assess the role played by mergers of satellite galaxies in the mass assembly of geometrically defined thick disks. Methods. We projected each galaxy edge on and decomposed it morphologically into two disk components in order to geometrically define the thin and thick disks, as is usually done in observations of external galaxies. We produced age, metallicity, and [Mg/Fe] edge-on maps of the 24 galaxies. We quantified the impact of satellite mergers by mapping the distribution of ex situ stars. Results. Thick disks are on average ∼3 Gyr older, ∼0.25 dex more metal poor, and ∼0.06 dex more [Mg/Fe]-enhanced than thin disks. Their average ages range from ∼6 to ∼9 Gyr, metallicities from ∼ − 0.15 to ∼0.1 dex, and [Mg/Fe] from ∼0.12 to ∼0.16 dex. These properties are the result of an early initial in situ formation, followed by a later growth driven by the combination of direct accretion of stars, some in situ star formation fueled by mergers, and dynamical heating of stars. The balance between these processes varies from galaxy to galaxy and impacts thick-disk ages and metallicities. The oldest thick disks (older than 8 Gyr) are hosted by galaxies with a low mass fraction of accreted stars (below 8%), while the youngest thick disks (younger than 7 Gyr) are found in galaxies with higher accreted fractions (larger than 25%). Mergers play a key role in the mass assembly of thick disks, contributing an average accreted mass fraction of ∼22% in the analyzed thick-disk-dominated regions. In two galaxies, about half of the geometric thick-disk mass was directly accreted. The mass fraction of accreted stars is lower than 10% only in four thick disks. While primordial thick disks form at high redshifts in all galaxies, young metal-rich thin disks, with much lower [Mg/Fe] abundances, start to form later but at different times (at higher or lower redshifts) depending on the galaxy. Conclusions. We conclude that thick disks, although mostly formed in situ, grow thanks to the significant contribution of satellite mergers, especially through the direct accretion of stars. They result from the interplay of external processes with the internal evolution of the galaxy.

Gas Accretion Can Drive Turbulence in Galaxies

The driving of turbulence in galaxies is deeply connected with the physics of feedback, star formation, outflows, accretion, and radial transport in disks. The velocity dispersion of gas in galaxies therefore offers a promising observational window into these processes. However, the relative importance of each of these mechanisms remains controversial. In this work we revisit the possibility that turbulence on galactic scales is driven by the direct impact of accreting gaseous material on the disk. We measure this effect in a disk-like star-forming galaxy in IllustrisTNG, using the high-resolution cosmological magnetohydrodynamical simulation TNG50. We employ Lagrangian tracer particles with a high time cadence of only a few million years to identify accretion and other events. The energies of particles are measured by stacking the events in bins of time around the event. The average effect of each event is measured by fitting explicit models for the kinetic and turbulent energies as a function of time. These measurements are corroborated by cross-correlating the turbulent energy with other time series and searching for signals of causality, i.e., asymmetries across zero time lag. We find that accretion contributes to the large-scale turbulent kinetic energy even if it does not dominate in this ∼5 × 109 M ⊙ stellar mass galaxy. Extrapolating this finding to a range of galaxy masses, we find that there are regimes where energy from direct accretion may dominate the turbulent energy budget, particularly in disk outskirts, galaxies less massive than the Milky Way, and at redshift ∼2.

Dynamics of direct impact accretion in degenerate binary systems

ABSTRACTWe consider the gas dynamics in an accreting binary system of degenerate stars within the framework of the Newtonian approximation. In such a system, the accretion stream can impact the surface of a white dwarf (WD) or neutron star (NS) as a result of the very compact orbit. This causes a loss of angular momentum from the orbit and spin-up of the accretor. We construct an approximation for the specific angular momentum of the accreting matter, which goes to spin up the accretor and approximations for some other parameters of the system. It is shown that the obtained approximation of the specific momentum is qualitatively different from the widely used Keplerian formula. It should affect the boundary between scenarios of immediate tidal disruption and slow mass-loss of the donor in WD–WD and NS–NS binaries, as well as the time of stable mass transfer in the stripping scenario.

Centrifugal barriers in magnetospheric accretion

ABSTRACT We reconsider the dynamics of accretion flows onto magnetized central star. For dipolar magnetically aligned case, the centrifugal barrier is at Rcb = (2/3)1/3Rc = 0.87Rc, where Rc = (GM/Ω2)1/3 is the corotation radius. For oblique dipole direct accretion from the corotation radius Rc is possible only for magnetic obliquity satisfying $\tan \theta _\mu \ge 1/(2 \sqrt{3})$ (θμ ≥ 16.1°). The accretion proceeds in a form of funnel flows – along two streams centred on the μ–Ω plane, with azimuthal opening angle $\cos (\Delta \phi) = { \cot ^ 2 {\theta _\mu } }/{12}$. For the magnetosphere distorted by the diamagnetic disc, the centrifugal barrier can be at as small radius as Rcb = 0.719Rc for the fully confined dipole, extending out to Rcb ∼ Rc for the magnetically balanced case. Type-II X-ray bursts in accreting neutron stars may be mediated by the centrifugal barrier; this requires nearly aligned configuration. Centrifugally barriered material trapped in the magnetosphere may lead to periodic obscuration (‘dips’) in the light curve of the host star, e.g. as observed in accreting young stellar objects and X-ray binaries.

SDSS IV MaNGA: characteristics of edge-on galaxies with a counter-rotating gaseous disc

ABSTRACT Counter-rotating components in galaxies are one of the most direct forms of evidence for past gas accretion or merging. We discovered 10 edge-on disc gaseous counter-rotators in a sample of 523 edge-on galaxies identified in the final MaNGA (Mapping Nearby Galaxies at APO) IFU sample. The counter-rotators tend to located in small groups. The gaseous counter-rotators have intermediate stellar masses and and located in the green valley and red sequence of the colour–magnitude diagram. The average vertical extents of the stellar and ionized gas discs are the same as for the rest of the sample while their radial gas and stellar distributions are more centrally concentrated. This may point at angular momentum loss during the formation process of the counter-rotating discs. The counter-rotators have low gas and dust content, weak emission-line strengths, and low star formation rates. This suggests that the formation of counter-rotators may be an efficient way to quench galaxies. One counter-rotator, SDSS J080016.09+292817.1 (Galaxy F), has a post-starburst region and a possible AGN at the centre. Another counter-rotator, SDSS J131234.03+482159.8 (Galaxy H), is identified as a potential ongoing galaxy interaction with its companion satellite galaxy, a gas-rich spiral galaxy. This may be representative case of a gaseous counter-rotator forming through a merger origin. However, tidal distortions expected in mergers are only found in a few of the galaxies and we cannot rule out direct gas accretion as another formation mechanism.

The Possible Formation of Jupiter from Supersolar Gas

More than two decades ago, the Galileo probe performed in situ measurements of the composition of Jupiter’s atmosphere and found that the abundances of C, N, S, P, Ar, Kr, and Xe were all enriched by factors of 1.5–5.4 times their protosolar value. Juno’s measurements recently confirmed the supersolar N abundance and also found that the O abundance was enriched by a factor 1–5 compared with its protosolar value. Here, we aim at determining the radial and temporal evolution of the composition of gases and solids in the protosolar nebula (PSN) to assess the possibility that Jupiter’s current composition was acquired via the direct accretion of supersolar gases. To do so, we model the evolution of a 1D α-viscous accretion disk that includes the radial transport of dust and ice particles and their vapors, with their sublimation and condensation rates, to compute the composition of the PSN. We find that the composition of Jupiter’s envelope can be explained only from its accretion from PSN gas (α ≤ 10−3), or from a mixture of vapors and solids (α > 10−3). The composition of the PSN at 4 au, namely between the locations of the H2O and CO2 icelines, reproduces the one measured in Jupiter between 100 and 300 kyr of disk evolution. Our results are found to be compatible with both the core accretion model, where Jupiter would acquire its metallicity by late accretion of volatile-rich planetesimals, and the gravitational collapse scenario, where the composition of proto-Jupiter would be similar to that of the PSN.

Quantifying the cool ISM in radio AGNs: evidence for late-time retriggering by galaxy mergers and interactions

ABSTRACTWe use deep Herschel observations of the complete 2Jy sample of powerful radio active galactic nuclei (AGNs) in the local Universe (0.05 < z < 0.7) to probe their cool interstellar medium (ISM) contents and star-forming properties, comparing them against other samples of nearby luminous AGNs and quiescent galaxies. This allows us to investigate triggering and feedback mechanisms. We find that the dust masses of the strong-line radio galaxies (SLRGs) in our sample are similar to those of radio-quiet quasars, and that their median dust mass (Mdust = 2 × 107 M⊙) is enhanced by a factor of ∼200 compared to that of non-AGN ellipticals, but lower by a factor of ∼16 relative to that of local ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs). Along with compelling evidence for merger signatures in optical images, the SLRGs in our sample also show relatively high star formation efficiencies, despite the fact that many of them fall below the main sequence for star-forming galaxies. Together, these results suggest that most of our SLRGs have been retriggered by late-time mergers that are relatively minor in terms of their gas contents. In comparison with the SLRGs, the radio AGNs with weak optical emission lines (weak-line radio galaxies – WLRGs) and edge-darkened radio jets (Fanaroff–Riley Class I radio sources – FRIs) have both lower cool ISM masses and star formation rates (by a factor of >30), consistent with being fuelled by a different mechanism (e.g. the direct accretion of hot gas).

Determination of wind-fed model parameters of neutron stars in high-mass X-ray binaries

Abstract We have studied several neutron star high-mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs) with super-giant (SG) companions using a wind-fed binary model associated with the magnetic field. By using the concept of torque balance, the magnetic field parameter determines the mass accretion rate. This would help us to consider the relationship between wind velocity and mass-loss rate. These parameters significantly improve our understanding of the accretion mechanism. The wind velocity is critical in determining the X-ray features. This can be used to identify the ejection process and the stochastic variations in their accretion regimes. However, even in systems with a long orbital period, an accretion disk can be created when the wind velocity is slow. This will allow the HMXB of both types, SG and Be, to be better characterised by deriving accurate properties from these binaries. In addition, we have performed segmentation in the parameter space of donors intended for several SG-HMXB listed in our sample set. The parameter space can be categorised into five regimes, depending on the possibility of disk formation associated with accretion from the stellar wind. This can give a quantitative clarification of the observed variability and the properties of these objects. For most of the systems, we show that the derived system parameters are consistent with the assumption that the system is emitting X-rays through direct accretion. However, there are some sources (LMC X-4, Cen X-3 and OAO1657-415) that are not in the direct accretion regime, although they share similar donor parameters. This may indicate that these systems are transitioning from a normal wind accretion phase to partial RLOF regimes.

Interstellar Planetesimals: Potential Seeds for Planet Formation?

Abstract We investigate the trapping of interstellar objects during the early stages of star and planet formation. Our results show a very wide range of possible values that will be narrowed down as the population of interstellar objects becomes better characterized. When assuming a background number density of 2 · 1015 pc−3 (based on 1I’s detection), a velocity dispersion of 30 km s−1, and an equilibrium size distribution, the number of interstellar objects captured by a molecular cloud and expected to be incorporated to each protoplanetary disk during its formation is O(109) (50 cm–5 m), O(105) (5–50 m), O(102) (50–500 m), O(10−2) (500 m–5 km). After the disk has formed, the number of interstellar objects it can capture from the ISM during its lifetime is 6 · 1011 (50 cm–5 m), 2 · 108 (5–50 m), 6 · 104 (50–500 m), 20 (500 m–5 km); in an open cluster where 1% of stars have undergone planet formation, these values increase by a factor of O(102–103). These trapped interstellar objects might be large enough to rapidly grow into larger planetesimals via the direct accretion of the subcm-sized dust grains in the protoplanetary disk before they drift in due to gas drag, helping overcome the meter-size barrier, acting as “seeds” for planet formation. They should be considered in future star and planet formation models, as well as in the potential spread of biological material across the Galaxy.

Accretion of tidally disrupted asteroids on to white dwarfs: direct accretion versus disc processing

ABSTRACT Atmospheric heavy elements have been observed in more than a quarter of white dwarfs (WDs) at different cooling ages, indicating ongoing accretion of asteroidal material, whilst only a few per cent of the WDs possess a dust disc, and all these WDs are accreting metals. Here, assuming that a rubble-pile asteroid is scattered inside a WD’s Roche lobe by a planet, we study its tidal disruption and the long-term evolution of the resulting fragments. We find that after a few pericentric passages, the asteroid is shredded into its constituent particles, forming a flat, thin ring. On a time-scale of Myr, tens of per cent of the particles are scattered on to the WD, and are therefore directly accreted without first passing through a circularized close-in disc. Fragment mutual collisions are most effective for coplanar fragments, and are thus only important in 103−104 yr before the orbital coplanarity is broken by the planet. We show that for a rubble pile asteroid with a size frequency distribution of the component particles following that of the near earth objects, it has to be roughly at least 10 km in radius such that enough fragments are generated and $\ge 10{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ of its mass is lost to mutual collisions. At relative velocities of tens of km s−1, such collisions grind down the tidal fragments into smaller and smaller dust grains. The WD radiation forces may shrink those grains’ orbits, forming a dust disc. Tidal disruption of a monolithic asteroid creates large km-size fragments, and only parent bodies ≥100 km are able to generate enough fragments for mutual collisions to be significant. Hence, those large asteroids experience a disc phase before being accreted.

A Real-time View of Orbital Evolution in HM Cancri

Abstract HM Cancri is a double degenerate binary with the shortest orbital period presently known. The 5.36 minute period is seen as a large amplitude, soft X-ray modulation, likely resulting from a hot spot produced by direct impact accretion. With such a short orbital period it is expected to have a gravitational wave luminosity comparable to or larger than that in the X-ray, and its orbital frequency is known to be increasing at a rate consistent with the expected loss of angular momentum due to gravitational radiation. We use recent Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer observations to extend its long-term X-ray timing baseline to almost 20 yr. Phase coherent timing of these new data combined with existing Chandra data demonstrates conclusively that the rate of orbital frequency increase is slowing, and we measure a nonzero Hz s−2, which is to our knowledge the first such measurement of its kind for any compact astrophysical binary. With the simultaneous high precision measurement of Hz s−1, we estimate that the system will reach its maximum orbital frequency of mHz in 1260 ± 200 yr, indicating that the system is close to its epoch of maximum orbital frequency. Assuming mass transfer is conservative, the measurement of implies that the accretion rate from the donor is growing, with M ⊙ yr−2. Further quantitative comparisons with theoretical models should enable more precise inferences regarding its current evolutionary state.

The relative efficiencies of bars and clumps in driving disc stars to retrograde motion

ABSTRACT The presence of stars on retrograde orbits in disc galaxies is usually attributed to accretion events, both via direct accretion, and through the heating of the disc stars. Recent studies have shown that retrograde orbits can also be produced via scattering by dense clumps, which are often present in the early stages of a galaxy’s evolution. However, so far it has been unclear whether other internally driven mechanisms, such as bars, are also capable of driving retrograde motion. Therefore, in this paper, we investigate the efficiencies with which bars and clumps produce retrograde orbits in disc galaxies. We do this by comparing the retrograde fractions and the spatial distributions of the retrograde populations in four N-body+smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations of isolated disc galaxies spanning a range of evolutionary behaviours. We find that both bars and clumps are capable of generating significant retrograde populations of order ${\sim}10{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ of all stars. We also find that while clump-driven retrograde stars may be found at large galactocentric radii, bar-driven retrograde stars remain in the vicinity of the bar, even if the bar dissolves. Consequently, we find that retrograde stars in the Solar neighbourhood in the clumpy models are exclusively clump-driven, but this is a trace population, constituting $0.01\!-\!0.04{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ of the total stellar population in this region. Finally, we find that neither bars (including dissolving ones) nor clumps in the models are able to produce rotationally supported counterrotating discs.

Spectroscopy of the helium-rich binary ES Ceti reveals accretion via a disc and evidence of eclipses

Context. Amongst the hydrogen-deficient accreting binaries known as the AM CVn stars are three systems with the shortest known orbital periods: HM Cnc (321 s), V407 Vul (569 s), and ES Cet (620 s). These compact binaries are predicted to be strong sources of persistent gravitational wave radiation. HM Cnc and V407 Vul are undergoing direct impact accretion in which matter transferred from their donor hits the accreting white dwarfs directly. ES Cet has the longest period of the three and is amongst the most luminous AM CVn stars, but it is not known whether it accretes via a disc or direct impact. ES Cet displays strong HeII 4686 line emission, which is sometimes a sign of magnetically controlled accretion. Peculiarly, although around one third of hydrogen accreting white dwarfs show evidence of magnetism, none have been found amongst helium accretors. Aims. We present the results of Magellan and VLT spectroscopic and spectropolarimetric observing campaigns dedicated to ES Cet with the aim of understanding its accretion structure. Methods. Based on the data collected, we derived trailed spectra, computed Doppler maps of the emission lines, and looked for circular polarisation and variability. Results. We find strong variability in our spectra on the 620 s period. The lines show evidence of double-peaked emission, characteristic of an accretion disc, with an additional component associated with the outermost disc, rather than a direct impact, which is broadly consistent with S-wave emission from the gas stream or disc impact region. This confirms beyond any doubt that 620 s is the orbital period of ES Cet. We find no significant circular polarisation (below 0.1%). The trailed spectra show that ES Cet’s outer disc is eclipsed by the mass donor, revealing at the same time that the photometric minimum coincides with the hitherto unrecognised eclipse. Conclusions. ES Cet shows spectroscopic behaviour consistent with accretion via a disc, and is the shortest orbital-period eclipsing AM CVn star known.

The initial structure of chondrule dust rims II: Charged grains

In order to characterize the early growth of fine-grained dust rims (FGRs) that commonly surround chondrules, we simulate the growth of FGRs through direct accretion of monomers of various sizes onto the chondrule surfaces. Dust becomes charged to varying degrees in the radiative plasma environment of the solar nebula (SN), and the resulting electrostatic force alters the trajectories of colliding dust grains, influencing the structure of the dust rim as well as the time scale of rim formation. We compare the growth of FGRs in protoplanetary disks (PPD) with different turbulence strengths and plasma conditions to previous models which assumed neutral dust grains (Xiang, C., Carballido, A., Hanna, R.D., Matthews, L.S., Hyde, T.W., 2019). We use a combination of a Monte Carlo method and an N-body code to simulate the collision of dust monomers of radii 0.5–10μm with chondrules whose radii are between 500 and 1000μm: a Monte Carlo algorithm is used to randomly select dust particles that will collide with the chondrule as well as determine the elapsed time interval between collisions; at close approach, the detailed collision process is modeled using an N-body algorithm, Aggregate Builder (AB), to determine the collision outcome, as well as any restructuring of the chondrule rim. For computational expediency, we limit accretion of dust monomers to a small patch of the chondrule surface. The collisions are driven by Brownian motion and coupling to turbulent gas motion in the protoplanetary disk. The charge distribution of the dust rim is modeled, used to calculate the trajectories of dust grains, and then analyze the resulting morphology of the dust rim. In a weakly turbulent region, the decreased relative velocity between charged particles causes small grains to be repelled from the chondrule, causing dust rims to grow more slowly and be composed of larger monomers, which results in a more porous structure. In a highly turbulent region, the presence of charge mainly affects the porosity of the rim by causing dust particles to deviate from the extremities of the rim and reducing the amount of restructuring caused by high-velocity collisions.

Episodic accretion constrained by a rich cluster of outflows

Context. The accretion history of protostars remains widely mysterious, even though it represents one of the best ways to understand the protostellar collapse that leads to the formation of stars. Aims. Molecular outflows, which are easier to detect than the direct accretion onto the prostellar embryo, are here used to characterize the protostellar accretion phase in W43-MM1. Methods. The W43-MM1 protocluster hosts a sufficient number of protostars to statistically investigate molecular outflows in a single, homogeneous region. We used the CO(2–1) and SiO(5–4) line datacubes, taken as part of an ALMA mosaic with a 2000 AU resolution, to search for protostellar outflows, evaluate the influence that the environment has on these outflows’ characteristics and put constraints on outflow variability in W43-MM1. Results. We discovered a rich cluster of 46 outflow lobes, driven by 27 protostars with masses of 1−100 M⊙. The complex environment inside which these outflow lobes develop has a definite influence on their length, limiting the validity of using outflows’ dynamical timescale as a proxy of the ejection timescale in clouds with high dynamics and varying conditions. We performed a detailed study of Position–Velocity diagrams of outflows that revealed clear events of episodic ejection. The time variability of W43-MM1 outflows is a general trend and is more generally observed than in nearby, low- to intermediate-mass star-forming regions. The typical timescale found between two ejecta, ~500 yr, is consistent with that found in nearby protostars. Conclusions. If ejection episodicity reflects variability in the accretion process, either protostellar accretion is more variable, or episodicity is easier to detect in high-mass star-forming regions than in nearby clouds. The timescale found between accretion events could result from instabilities associated with bursts of inflowing gas arising from the close dynamical environment of high-mass star-forming cores.

Structural diversity of disc galaxies originating in the cold gas inflow from cosmic webs

ABSTRACT Disc galaxies show a large morphological diversity with varying contribution of three major structural components: thin discs, thick discs, and central bulges. Dominance of bulges increases with the galaxy mass (Hubble sequence), whereas thick discs are more prominent in lower mass galaxies. Because galaxies grow with the accretion of matter, this observed variety should reflect diversity in accretion history. On the basis of the prediction by the cold-flow theory for galactic gas accretion and inspired by the results of previous studies, we put a hypothesis that associates different accretion modes with different components. Namely, thin discs form as the shock-heated hot gas in high-mass haloes gradually accretes to the central part, thick discs grow by the direct accretion of cold gas from cosmic webs when the halo mass is low, and finally bulges form by the inflow of cold gas through the shock-heated gas in high-redshift massive haloes. We show that this simple hypothesis reproduces the mean observed variation of galaxy morphology with the galaxy mass. This scenario also predicts that thick discs are older and poorer in metals than thin discs, in agreement with the currently available observations.

NuSTAR observations of wind-fed X-ray pulsar GX 301–2 during unusual spin-up event

We report on NuSTAR observations of the well-known wind-accreting X-ray pulsar GX 301–2 during a strong spin-up episode that took place in January–March 2019. A measurement of high luminosity of the source in the most recent observation allowed us to detect a positive correlation of the cyclotron line energy with luminosity. Beyond that, only minor differences in spectral and temporal properties of the source during the spin-up, presumably associated with the formation of a transient accretion disk, and the normal wind-fed state could be detected. Finally, we discuss conditions for the formation of the disk and possible reasons for lack of any appreciable variations in most of the observed source properties induced by the change of the accretion mechanism, and conclude that the bulk of the observed X-ray emission is still likely powered by direct accretion from the wind.

Young, old, massive: Steps to understanding globular cluster formation

AbstractOn observational grounds we now know a huge amount about the characteristics of massive star clusters in galaxies of all types, from the smallest dwarfs to the most massive giants and even into the Intracluster Medium. The old globular clusters (GCs) in particular exhibit a high degree of uniformity across all these environments in their physical properties including scale size, luminosity distribution, metallicity distribution, and age. As survivors of a long period of dynamical evolution, they are “unusual, but not special” among star clusters.The past few years have seen major advances in theoretical modelling that are starting to reveal how these massive star clusters formed in the early stages of galaxy evolution. Several suites of models point to their emergence in GMCs (Giant Molecular Clouds), which provide the turbulent big reservoirs of gas within which star clusters can be built. At cluster masses ∼105M⊙ and above, clusters form hierarchically through a nearly equal combination of direct gas accretion, and mergers with smaller clusters scattered throughout the GMC. GCs and YMCs (young massive clusters) in this high mass range should therefore be composite systems right from birth. To make such high-mass clusters, host GMCs of ∼107M⊙ are needed, and these are most commonly found in galaxies at redshifts z ≳ 2.

Evolution of X-Ray Properties of MAXI J1535-571: Analysis with the TCAF Solution

Abstract We present spectral and timing properties of the newly discovered X-ray transient source, MAXI J1535-571, which is believed to be a Galactic X-ray binary containing a black hole candidate (BHC) as the primary object. Since its discovery on 2017 September 2, it has been monitored regularly in multi-wavelength bands by several satellites. We use archival data of the Swift (XRT and BAT) and MAXI (GSC) satellite instruments to study accretion flow dynamics of the source during the outburst. During its outburst, the source became very bright in the sky with a maximum observed flux of 5 Crab in the 2–10 keV GSC band. Similar to other transient BHCs, it also shows signatures of low-frequency quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) during the outburst. Spectral data of different instruments are fitted with the transonic flow, solution-based two-component advective flow model fits file to find the direct accretion flow parameters. The evolution of spectral states and their transitions are understood from the model-fitted physical flow parameters and nature of QPOs. We also estimate the probable mass of the black hole from our spectral analysis as 7.9–9.9 M ⊙ or 8.9 ± 1.0 M ⊙.