Diplomatic Interactions Research Articles

Italian Libyan Relations 1951 – 1969 Eecnomic Study

This study explores the economic dimensions of Italian-Libyan relations from 1951 to 1969, a period marked by the shifting sands of post-colonial geopolitics and economic development. After Libya's independence in 1951, Italy, as a former colonial power, sought to maintain and reshape its economic ties with the newly sovereign nation. This period witnessed significant Italian investment in Libyan infrastructure, oil exploration, and trade, reflecting both countries' evolving economic priorities and strategies. The study examines key agreements, economic aid, and the impact of the oil boom on bilateral relations. By analyzing trade data, investment flows, and political agreements, the research highlights how economic considerations influenced diplomatic interactions and contributed to the broader geopolitical landscape of the region. The findings provide insights into the complexities of post-colonial economic relationships and the strategic maneuvers of a former colonial power seeking to secure its interests in a rapidly changing world.

The Ottoman Empire and Panama Canal (late 19th – early 20th centuries)

The purpose of this research paper is to analyze the San Francisco Exposition, which marked the ceremonial opening of the Panama Canal, and the Ottoman Empire’s approach to this event. Additionally, the study examines the historical, political, economic, strategic, and social importance of the Panama Canal from its inception to completion. The scientific novelty of research paper lies in its detailed examination and analysis of the Panama Canal’s construction and opening, with a specific focus on the Ottoman Empire’s interactions and responses. The study provides unique insights into the diplomatic interactions between the United States and the Ottoman Empire during the canal’s inauguration. This research uncovers lesser-known aspects of the canal’s history, highlighting the persistent efforts of the United States to involve the Ottoman Empire and other nations in the celebrations, thereby showcasing the complex global geopolitical dynamics of the early 20th century. Conclusions. The history of the Panama Canal is a testament to remarkable engineering feats, international diplomacy, and significant geopolitical shifts. Initially envisioned by the Spanish, attempted by the French, and ultimately realized by the United States, the canal has had a profound impact on global trade by reducing maritime distances and fostering economic growth. The United States’ successful construction of the canal was a demonstration of advanced engineering and a strategic diplomatic achievement. By supporting Panama’s independence and carefully navigating international agreements, the US secured its control over this vital waterway, further solidifying its influence on the global stage. The absence of the Ottoman Empire at the San Francisco Exposition, despite persistent American invitations, highlights an intriguing diplomatic nuance. Ottoman archival documents reveal multiple efforts by the United States to engage the Empire, underscoring the canal’s significance in international relations. This diplomatic episode illustrates the broader geopolitical implications of the canal’s opening and US’s message of emerging dominance. In summary, the Panama Canal’s history is not only about engineering triumphs but also about the complex interplay of international relations, exemplified by the interactions with the Ottoman Empire. The canal’s completion marked the beginning of a new era, with the United States at the forefront, reshaping global trade and political dynamics.

Pakistan-Bangladesh Unresolved Issues During the Era of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajid

This research offers a thorough study of Pak-Bangladesh relations under the direction of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajid from her return to power in 2009 to the present. Understood within the larger framework of South Asian geopolitics, the study aims to clarify the evolution, dynamics, and subtleties of the bilateral relationship between Pakistan and Bangladesh. It looks at how interactions between the two countries have been shaped by historical legacies, home political environments, and regional as well as worldwide factors. The study is organized around themes of the historical background of Pak-Bangladesh relations, the effect of Sheikh Hasina's leadership on bilateral ties, the function of economic and trade alliances, and the influence of third-party countries and international organizations. Examined are important events, diplomatic interactions, and policy choices to find their underlying reasons and effects. Particularly under consideration are divisive topics including historical grievances, economic cooperation, security difficulties, and cultural diplomacy.

Masks Down: Diplomacy and Regime Stability in the Post‐Covid‐19 Era

Natural disasters can create peaceful diplomatic interactions between conflicting parties, be they warring states or warring domestic factions. Advocates of “disaster diplomacy” argue that while events such as epidemics, earthquakes, floods, windstorms, and tsunamis result in human tragedies, they also generate opportunities for international cooperation, even between enemies. Conversely, natural disasters can also create rifts between friends and allies. Case studies of individual disasters show that while these events sometimes facilitate diplomatic efforts, they may also emphasize existing differences, creating rifts and exacerbating conflicts. The Covid-19 pandemic represents a unique opportunity to test the disaster diplomacy hypothesis on a rare global health crisis that affected many nations of various regime types and with various relations between them. We argue that pandemics and large-scale emergencies can change the rules of the diplomatic game by exposing states’ genuine interests while disregarding international community norms. As such, the Covid-19 pandemic is tearing off the masks from states’ faces, opening paths to cooperation with unexpected partners while creating rifts between yesterday’s allies. We thus argue that post-Covid-19 diplomacy may be characterized by previously rare tendencies such as “trading with the enemy” on the one hand and abandonment of international agreements on the other. Moreover, on the domestic front, such crises tend to exhibit strong fluctuations in regime type, with a clear shift toward populist parties. Additionally, this article provides two alternative explanations for these phenomena and offers an in-depth analysis of two case studies.

Dualism in Vietnam-China Relations: Vietnam's Diplomatic Interactions with Chinese Envoys from the 10th to the 19th Century

Dualism in Vietnam-China Relations: Vietnam's Diplomatic Interactions with Chinese Envoys from the 10th to the 19th Century

Digital geographies of diplomacy: The uneven digital mediation of spaces and encounters at the UN Human Rights Council

In Spring 2020, as COVID-19 spread across the globe, diplomats embraced the digital as a means of continuing to practise statecraft. Drawing on online observations of the (resumed) 43rd, 44th and 45th sessions of the United Nations Human Rights Council (HRC) in 2020, and 23 interviews with representatives who participated in these sessions, this paper addresses two lacuna in the existing literature: the under-theorisation of the role of the spatial in studies of digital diplomacy; and the lack of attention paid to diplomacy in digital geographies scholarship. We explore how diplomacy, an inherently spatial practice, is being ‘recast’ by the digital via a shift both in the form of diplomatic interactions, and in the human and non-human actors involved in doing diplomacy. In doing so, we take as our starting point Leszczynski's theory of the mediation of socio-spatial-digital relations. We consider two features of digital diplomacy which scholarship on digital mediation opens up for examination. First, how digitalisation – specifically the use of ‘real-time’ online audio-visual communication devices – has altered the geographies of diplomatic inclusion and exclusion at the HRC, simultaneously fostering interactions between diverse diplomatic actors whilst also exacerbating pre-existing spatial exclusions. Second, the shifting geographies of diplomatic encounters, including how digital technologies have reconfigured opportunities for intimacy. The paper concludes by calling for dialogue between scholars of digital diplomacy and of digital geographies.

Paving the complex path to building climate resilient cities through disaster health diplomacy and international public health policy

Disaster resilience defines society’s capabilities to resist/adapt/recover from hazardous events. Priorities for action were outlined at the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction to reduce disaster risks by understanding the process, strengthening governance, investing in resilience, improving preparedness/effective response capacities/rehabilitation processes/reconstruction procedures. Disaster diplomacy is a fast growing interdisciplinary field. Natural disasters potentially generate opportunities for diplomatic interaction between rival parties/conflicting states. Climate crisis is growing. By large, Summer 2023 was globally the warmest on record. The 2015 Paris Agreement was a landmark; UNOHCHR proposes a universal decleration of disaster rights. Climate change has widespread impacts on human health. “The greatest health threat of the 21stcentury” affects socio environmental determinants of health, clean air/water/food/shelter. Ninety percent of all disasters are climate/weather related, resulting in >410,000deaths in the last decade, expected to cause 250,000 additional deaths/year from malnutrition/malaria,/diarrhoea/heat stress in 2030 2050. IFRC focuses on strengthening ownership/community leadership/outreach/funding/forecasting/anticipatory action. Climate related flashpoints are the early warnings of impending crises. Turkey Greece have a lot in common from a climate change/disaster resilience viewpoint. Successive earthquakes generated rescue responses/mutual aid/outpouring of sympathy between the two countries within the last decade. Extreme weather events, high temperatures, severe rainfalls continue to batter both countries. Global warming brought intense flooding/wildfires to Southeast Europe/Southwest Asia. Climate change is expected to become the strongest driver of human migration through complex mechanisms in the Mediterranean Basin. The sustainability of Greece’s migration policies may be challenged against the global climate crisis. Environmental change has potential impacts on human health. Health diplomacy in international relations focuses on protecting health/well being. In the past, health interventions as foreign policy were regarded not to be associated with diplomatic disaster efforts. This oral presentation challenges earlier opinions and proposes a “climate change health diplomacy model” for improving capacities in disaster resilience. Around the world, health care professionals speak a unique/universal language of their own. Countries with “otherwise conflicting interests,” stand in solidarity during natural disasters. Through further elaborating on the principles of sustainable collaboration on disaster risks/health diplomacy/climate change, a “first time disaster health diplomacy model” may be developed to serve the world. An outline is hereby presented, 1 to define paths of communication versus the current ad hoc disaster diplomacy efforts, 2 to incorporate risks into the disaster diplomacy plan, 3 to incorporate a well planned disaster health diplomacy agreement. As the Turkish saying goes, “HEALTH COMES FIRST”.

Economic diplomacy: Analyzing theories and models for informed policy

This paper examines the intricate relationship between economic theories, trade policies, and diplomatic engagements in the context of international relations. Utilizing theoretical frameworks such as the theory of comparative advantage and the Heckscher-Ohlin model, we analyze the foundational principles guiding global trade and policy-making. We explore the role of probabilistic models, including Bayesian statistics and regression analysis, in forecasting economic trends and their implications for international relations. Furthermore, we investigate the impact of trade policies, including tariffs, non-tariff barriers, and global trade agreements, on economic dynamics and diplomatic interactions. Through case studies of economic sanctions, we assess the effectiveness of sanctions as a diplomatic tool and propose policy recommendations for their optimal implementation. Our analysis highlights the complexity of economic diplomacy and underscores the importance of quantitative analysis in informing policy decisions and fostering international cooperation.

The Contrasts between Traditional and Modern Diplomacy

Throughout history, diplomacy has been served as a means of creating and managing connections between nations, addressing requirements, and resolving a range of political, economic, social, and cultural issues. It is an axiom that the organization and establishment of states in ancient times differed from the structure of contemporary states. Hence, the nature of their interactions, diplomatic strategies and the appointment of representatives and their roles in foreign countries are entirely distinct from those of the past time. In the past, state diplomacy was temporary, confidential, conducted between two parties, and solely aimed at resolving political issues. Following the Treaty of Westphalia and the subsequent formation of the nation-state system, diplomacy has evolved into its contemporary form. This transformation has been influenced by the advent of modern technology and the proliferation of information and communication tools, which have significantly impacted various facets of human life at both national and international levels. Consequently, there has been a fundamental shift in the nature, scope, participants, objectives, influential factors, and operational mechanisms of diplomacy and diplomatic interactions among nations. This study aims to examine the topic of political science, with a specific focus on international relations professionals. It seeks to explore the distinctions between historical and contemporary diplomacy and to provide a comprehensive and effective response to this inquiry.

Clash of Diplomatic Cultures between Europe and China around 1800: A Rereading of the Macartney Mission

Abstract This essay revisits some familiar diplomatic encounters between European nations and China in the decades around 1800. It proceeds from a theoretical distinction between diplomacy within an international society and diplomacy between international societies. The set of ideas, principles, and institutions of diplomatic interaction within an international society may be summarily termed its diplomatic culture. Diplomacy between international societies lacks a shared diplomatic culture, involving instead negotiations between different diplomatic cultures. The European embassies to China around 1800 epitomize diplomacy between international societies. The essay examines in some detail the attempts on both sides to make sense of the diplomatic exchange, in which they were engaged: translating documents, documenting actions, and interpreting the events by poetic means. All these attempts turned out to entrench differences rather than induce agreements. This predicament was to be resolved only by violence.

‘A Necessary Evil?’: (Southern) Rhodesia’s Diplomatic and Economic Relations with Zambia, 1963 to 1973

This paper historicises the diplomatic and economic relations of Southern Rhodesia and Zambia between 1963 and 1973. While there has been comprehensive scholarship delineating the relations between, for instance, Zimbabwe and South Africa over the years, neighbouring Zambia has hitherto been given little attention by historians. Where the relations of Zimbabwe and Zambia have been examined, this has been in the context of political and military connections between Zambia’s United National Independence Party-led government and the Zimbabwean liberation movements the Zimbabwe African National Union and the Zimbabwe African People’s Union. In terms of Zambia–Rhodesia economic and diplomatic interactions, much has been written on how Zambia fared against the backdrop of Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence and the sanctions that followed, from the point of view of Zambia. We shift the focus because there is very little scholarship on the Rhodesian point of view, particularly its relations with Zambia in the period covered by this article. Using archival sources, newspapers and secondary literature, we contend that until the closure of the Rhodesia–Zambia border, the connection between the two countries was characterised by a cautious partnership marked by both covert and overt hostility, which escalated to an outright breakdown of border relations in 1973. Essentially, economic diplomacy became a critical tool deployed by Rhodesia towards Zambia to survive times of financial challenges precipitated by sanctions imposed by Britain and the United Nations, as well as the context of wars of liberation waged in Rhodesia since 1966.

Nepal and the Middle East: Nonalignment and Economic Interests

Abstract: Nepal is a poor, nonaligned, landlocked country surrounded by India and China that has had good relations with both Israel and the Arab states due in large part to a foreign policy conducted on the basis of Panchasheel , composed of five principles: (1) mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, (2) noninterference in each other’s internal affairs, (3) respect for mutual equality, (4) nonaggression and peaceful settlements of disputes, and (5) cooperation for mutual benefit. This outlook has also motivated Nepal’s participation in many United Nations peacekeeping operations. Originally the object of a rivalry between Egypt and Israel, Nepal has attracted the attention of a number of other Middle Eastern states, particularly those in the Arab Gulf region, as witnessed by increasing diplomatic interactions and transportation connections with Nepal and/or its officials especially in recent years, while Nepalis provide much-needed labor for many of those same countries. Despite numbers of cases of worker abuse in the Middle East, Nepali laborers there provide remittances essential for families dealing with difficult living conditions in Nepal as well as a source of foreign revenue for that country.

The Nature and Scope of Diplomatic History

Diplomatic history is a subfield of history that focuses on the interactions and relationships between states and their representatives. It is concerned with the nature of diplomacy and the role it plays in shaping international relations. Diplomatic history also encompasses a wide range of areas including the study of treaties, alliances, war and peace, and the role of diplomacy in shaping the modern world. More so, the discipline looks at the influence of non-state actors, such as individuals, corporations, and NGOs, on the course of diplomatic history. In addition, the scope of diplomatic history is vast and covers a range of historical periods and regions. The field also studies the impact of culture, emotions, and identity on diplomatic interactions. However, the discipline is faced by some challenges and limitations. Some historians argue that diplomatic history is too focused on state actors and official sources, and that it fails to account for the experiences of ordinary people. This paper examines the nature and scope of diplomatic history. It explains the meaning of history, diplomacy and how the concept of diplomatic history evolved and the role of diplomacy in history. It also highlighted the impact of diplomacy on world events. The relationship between diplomatic history and other disciplines was also examined. The paper uses a historical research approach in its analysis.

Genological stratification of diplomatic discourse on social network X (based on the material of the countries of the Romance and Germanic language areas)

Relevance. The rapid advancement in technology has profoundly impacted various aspects of human life, including communication. The advent of the internet and microblogs like X has revolutionized not only personal and professional interactions but also diplomatic discourse. This evolution presents new avenues for philological research, particularly in the domain of communicative linguistics.Purpose. The purpose of this article is to determine, describe and make an attempt to predict the levels and structure of genres of diplomatic discourse in the coming decades using examples of its manifestations on X in the best traditions of classical linguistics schools and considering the achievements of new research areas in linguistics.Methodology. The analysis utilises a comprehensive review of existing literature on discourse theory and internet communication genres. It incorporates a detailed examination of X�s role in modern diplomatic interactions to propose a new stratification matrix for genres termed twiplomatics.Results. The article highlights the genres of tweeting as the implementation of diplomatic discourse within the framework of virtual (internet) communication on the example of the social network (microblog) X. A contribution is made to the development of the theory of genological theory, in particular, the genre of virtual communication. A hierarchical stratification of speech genres for twiplomatics is offered.Conclusions. The findings contribute significantly to the field of discourse genology by providing a structured genre classification system for diplomatic discourse on X. This research not only enriches our understanding of digital communication dynamics but also sets a foundation for future studies in virtual communication genres, potentially guiding the development of more effective digital diplomatic strategies.

On Historical Relationship between Parliamentary and Humanitarian Diplomacy

The paper analyzes approaches to defining parliamentary and humanitarian venues of diplomatic cooperation. It is shown that institutionalized inter-parliamentary cooperation began to develop in the last quarter of the 19th century, while examples of the influence of parliamentarians on the foreign policy process in their nation-states can be traced back even earlier, at least since the time of the Great French Revolution. It has been revealed that the early forms of parliamentarian influence on foreign policy were based on humanistic arguments and appealed to a sense of humanity. The humanistic orientation of the emerging parliamentary diplomacy in the last third of the 19th century is explained by focusing on factors such as the development of the media and the growing influence of public opinion on the domestic and foreign policies of European nation-states. The similarity of the initial organizational forms of parliamentary and humanitarian diplomacy illustrates the example of the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Inter-Parliamentary Union. Both types of diplomatic interaction emerged via multilateral conferences. The final section of the paper is devoted to an analysis of the origins of Russian parliamentary and humanitarian diplomacy. It is shown that Russia played an active role in the development of these forms of diplomatic interaction. The paper concludes by arguing that a thorough definition of parliamentary diplomacy is only possible when both the actor and organizational dimensions of parliamentary diplomacy are taken into account. It argues further that the more or less common paths of development of parliamentary and humanitarian diplomacy result in their thematic affinity. The third conclusion is that the parliamentary methods accepted by diplomatic agents profoundly affected the development of cooperation between nation-states during the 20th century.

Divine Diplomacy: Religious Influence in Global Policymaking

Research Problem: This research aims to investigate the complex interactions between religion and global policymaking and their impact on international relations. Research purposes: The aim of this research is to comprehensively investigate the influence of religion on diplomatic decisions and international relations, as well as to provide a deeper understanding of how global policy is influenced by religious beliefs. Research methods: The research methods used include analysis of historical documents, diplomatic archives, and qualitative interviews with key stakeholders such as policy makers and religious leaders. This research approach provides a nuanced exploration exploring the multi-faceted dimensions of religious influence on diplomatic decisions and international relations. Results and Discussion: This research highlights historical patterns of religious influence on foreign policy and makes significant contributions to academic discussions of international relations. The results of this research help understand the motivations and actions of states in the context of a complex geopolitical landscape. Research Implications and Contributions: The implications of this research extend to policymakers, scholars, and the general public by providing a deeper understanding of how religious beliefs shape global strategy. By recognizing this dimension in diplomatic interactions, this research provides a basis for creating culturally sensitive and effective foreign policy, promoting dialogue, and strengthening cooperation between countries with diverse religious backgrounds.

The Rise and Fall of Diplomacy from Below: The Rebel Cooperation of Ya Basta!

ABSTRACT Under what conditions are radical alternatives to state-led diplomacy feasible? Diplomatic studies have so far denied attention to those diplomatic practices taking place without national mediation. Building on the concept of diplomacy from below (DFB), the article aims to understand under what conditions this newly theorised form of alternative diplomacy is possible in contexts of armed violence. To do so, we present the case of the diplomatic action of the (post)autonomist Association Ya Basta! between 1997 and 2004. The study adopts an interpretivist approach, reconstructing activists’ stories along four conflict scenarios (Mexico, Palestine, Colombia, and Iraq). The empirical analysis allowed for formulating a “working hypothesis” according to which DFB is feasible only among groups sharing an ideological background and under minimum-security conditions for freedom of movement and physical integrity. The paper innovates debates on (para)diplomacy and opens a new research agenda on diplomatic interactions between subaltern groups in (post)conflict scenarios.

Germanys Strategic Misjudgment of World War I: Based on the Impact of Anglo-German Diplomatic Interaction

This article reviews and analyzes the Anglo-German diplomatic activities and interactions of some officials from both Britain and Germany before the First World War. It focuses on specific cases involving figures such as Henry Wilson and Prince Lichnowsky, aiming to explore the factors in the pre-war diplomatic interactions between Britain and Germany that led to Germanys strategic misjudgment and ultimately culminated in the outbreak of the war. Structural realism and the concept of security dilemma are employed to examine the intentions and positions of officials and the upper echelons on both sides. This study concludes that the prolonged strategic preparations by Britain and its vigilant attitude towards Germanys aggression demonstrated thorough consideration of the impending war. On the other hand, factors such as the German militarys satisfaction with its own development and the filtering of genuine information within its internal diplomatic system intensified the likelihood of war. Additionally, the ambiguous stance displayed by Britain towards the prospect of war also exerted a certain influence. Taking a research perspective centered on the analysis of mutual or internal interactions between the two parties, this article aims to offer novel insights for future investigations into the realm of strategic misjudgment preceding World War I.

Through the Eyes of Attackers: A Comprehensive Analysis of Cybersecurity Strategies in International Relations

In this interconnected global landscape, where technology forms the foundation of diplomatic interactions, understanding the complicated methodologies of cyber attackers has become of utmost importance. This study delves into the core of worldwide cybersecurity, introducing a unique viewpoint that involves an exploration of offensive tactics from the vantage point of those orchestrating attacks. Employing an interdisciplinary methodology, the research amalgamates case studies, expert publications, and the analysis of threat intelligence to decode the incentives, strategies, and aspirations of these digital assailants. By closely examining historical events like the Stuxnet incident, the investigation reveals the evolution of offensive cyber activities and their consequences in the international relations field. Through a comprehensive assessment of attack avenues, techniques, and the motivations driving attackers, this analysis brings to light the complicated interaction between cybersecurity, global politics, and the stability of nations. By anticipating emerging trends in cyber threats and delving into regional perspectives, this study offers a forward-focused outlook on the challenges and possibilities that lie on the horizon. Ultimately, this research emphasizes the pressing requirement for international collaboration, innovative policy development, and proactive measures to navigate the complex terrain of offensive cyber tactics and to ensure the preservation of the future landscape of international relations.

Interwoven Models of Peacemaking – the Israeli-Palestinian Case and Beyond

ABSTRACT Two competitive approaches are dominant in the debate about the optimal strategy to cope with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: Conflict-Management and Conflict-Resolution. This paper suggests looking at them as complementary. It presents four models of peacemaking. The first, the Strong Leader Model, involves drastic unilateral initiatives taken by one of the parties. The second, the Social Reformer Model, encourages domestic reforms within each of the parties. The third, the Political Elite Model, offers various forms of diplomatic interactions and is the dominant experience in Middle East peace processes. The fourth, the Public Assembly Model, proposes the creation of a major Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress, based on the multiparty talks used in South Africa and Northern Ireland during the 1990s. This paper concludes that a multifaceted approach, which uses insights from all models in an integrated fashion, has the potential to create a momentum for a revolutionary peacemaking process.