Digit Naming Research Articles

Beyond Word Recognition: The Role of Efficient Sequential Processing in Word- and Text-Reading Fluency Development

ABSTRACT Purpose Previous studies examining the inter-relations between serial and discrete naming with reading have found that the ability to efficiently process multiple items presented in a sequence (indexed by serial naming) is a unique predictor of word- and text-reading fluency. However, conclusions have been tempered by the concurrent nature of the available data and the uniformly low demands of the materials (words and texts). Here we go beyond previous studies by using more varied materials to examine the relations of serial and discrete naming with the discrete reading of words and the serial reading of word lists and connected text over time. Method Two hundred and eight English-speaking Canadian children (51% female, M age = 7.2 years) were followed from Grade 2 to Grade 5 and were assessed on serial and discrete digit naming and serial and discrete word reading at both measurement points. Results Strong associations between discrete naming and discrete reading already from Grade 2 indicated that short and high-frequency words were processed in parallel early in development. By Grade 5, when word recognition was presumably automatized, serial naming accounted for unique variance in serial reading of word lists and connected texts after controlling for discrete word reading. More importantly, Latent Change Score modeling indicated that serial naming was the main predictor of growth in serial reading from Grade 2 to Grade 5. Conclusion These findings suggest that, beyond individual word recognition, reading fluency development also requires efficient processing of multiple items presented in serial format (termed “cascaded processing”).

A genome-wide association study of Chinese and English language phenotypes in Hong Kong Chinese children

Dyslexia and developmental language disorders are important learning difficulties. However, their genetic basis remains poorly understood, and most genetic studies were performed on Europeans. There is a lack of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on literacy phenotypes of Chinese as a native language and English as a second language (ESL) in a Chinese population. In this study, we conducted GWAS on 34 reading/language-related phenotypes in Hong Kong Chinese bilingual children (including both twins and singletons; total N = 1046). We performed association tests at the single-variant, gene, and pathway levels. In addition, we tested genetic overlap of these phenotypes with other neuropsychiatric disorders, as well as cognitive performance (CP) and educational attainment (EA) using polygenic risk score (PRS) analysis. Totally 5 independent loci (LD-clumped at r2 = 0.01; MAF > 0.05) reached genome-wide significance (p < 5e-08; filtered by imputation quality metric Rsq>0.3 and having at least 2 correlated SNPs (r2 > 0.5) with p < 1e-3). The loci were associated with a range of language/literacy traits such as Chinese vocabulary, character and word reading, and rapid digit naming, as well as English lexical decision. Several SNPs from these loci mapped to genes that were reported to be associated with EA and other neuropsychiatric phenotypes, such as MANEA and PLXNC1. In PRS analysis, EA and CP showed the most consistent and significant polygenic overlap with a variety of language traits, especially English literacy skills. To summarize, this study revealed the genetic basis of Chinese and English abilities in a group of Chinese bilingual children. Further studies are warranted to replicate the findings.

Americans have a longer digit span but a shorter spatial span than Finns

Objective Cross-national studies of test norms show American superiority in digit span (DS) length as compared to European norms. In our study, American and Finnish DS and Spatial span (SS) norms were analyzed to study the hypothesis that the differences in DS reflect a systemic difference in working memory and are not based on linguistic factors. Method The mean DS and SS scores from the Wechsler Memory Scale III US (n = 1,250) and Finnish (n = 251) standardizations were compared. Results A significant difference between American and Finnish mean DS (16.5–14.2) and SS (14.7–15.9) raw scores was observed. For six out of seven age groups, the American sample had longer DS while for 4/7 age groups, the Finnish sample had longer SS. Conclusions It is concluded that differences in DS are based on other factors than a systemic difference in working memory. Cross-national differences in articulatory duration of digit names is probably one major causative factor. The results underline the need for establishing national test norms for memory tests.

Development of Phonological Processing Test in Marathi (PPT-M) for Young Adults

IntroductionCentral auditory processing and phonological processing are interconnected as they both involve successful intertwining of auditory, cognitive, and language mechanisms. A deficit in the ability to process spoken language can result in CAPD. The aim of this study was to develop a test (PPT-M) to evaluate the level of phonological processing among young Marathi-speaking adults. A second aim was to investigate the difference in the phonological processing of words and non-words.Material and methodsThe PPT-M test included three subtests: phonological awareness, phonological working memory, and phonological retrieval. For the awareness and memory tasks, the stimulus was words and non-words, whereas rapid automatised naming (RAN) of digits and letters was used to assess the retrieval task. Data was collected from 40 young adults aged 18 to 25 years. We recorded accuracy and time taken to complete the tasks.ResultsResults of item analysis suggest that the developed tool has good reliability. No significant gender effect was observed. A stimulus effect was observed for the phonological processing test.ConclusionsThe Phonological Processing Test in Marathi (PPT-M) has good internal consistency and reliability. Words and non-words are processed differently and the time required to respond to both varies. There were no gender differences. In the phonological awareness test, blending and segmentation tasks required more time to complete and had reduced accuracy.

Are General Anxiety, Reading Anxiety, and Reading Self-Concept Linked to Reading Skills Among Chinese Adolescents With and Without Dyslexia?

This study investigated the cross-sectional relationships between reading-related affective and cognitive factors and reading skills among adolescents with and without dyslexia. Participants were 120 Chinese-speaking eighth graders, including 60 adolescents with dyslexia and 60 typically developing adolescents from Hong Kong, China. Adolescents completed questionnaires on general anxiety, reading anxiety, and reading self-concept. They were also assessed on measures of rapid digit naming, verbal working memory, word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. The results showed that readers with dyslexia reported higher levels of general anxiety and reading anxiety and lower levels of reading self-concept than typical readers. They also showed difficulties in rapid digit naming and verbal working memory. Importantly, controlling for rapid digit naming and verbal working memory, reading self-concept was uniquely associated with word reading and reading fluency for readers with and without dyslexia. Furthermore, reading anxiety and reading self-concept were uniquely associated with reading comprehension for the two groups of readers. The findings point to the importance of considering affective factors when examining the reading skills of Chinese readers and the utility of targeting these factors when supporting the learning of adolescents with and without dyslexia.

Serial and discrete naming and reading in Chinese first graders: Testing predictions from the cascaded processing hypothesis

Recent studies have suggested that—beyond automaticity and prosody—reading fluency involves parallel processing of adjacent items presented in a sequence, termed “cascaded processing.” To date, most studies examining cascaded processing have been conducted in alphabetic orthographies. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the cascaded processing hypothesis in Chinese. A total of 119 Grade 1 Chinese children (61 boys and 58 girls; Mage = 7.30 years, SD = 0.31) were assessed on serial and discrete naming of digits as well as on serial and discrete naming of high-frequency one- and two-character words and low-frequency one-character words presented with pinyin. Results of hierarchical regression analyses showed, first, that serial digit naming was a unique predictor of discrete naming of low-frequency one-character words and two-character words, but not of high-frequency one-character words. Second, serial digit naming was a unique predictor of reading of high-frequency one- and two-character word reading after controlling for discrete word reading. These findings suggest that Chinese first graders process high-frequency characters holistically (similar to simple digits), which then facilitates parallel processing of multiple stimuli when they are presented in a sequence.

Investigating the modulation of stimulus types on language switching costs: Do semantic and repetition priming effect matter?

In the present study, I investigated the influence of stimulus types on bilingual control in the language switching process. The commonly employed stimuli in language switching studies - Arabic digits and objects - were compared to further investigate the way in which inhibitory control could be modulated by semantic and repetition priming effects. The digit stimuli have two unique characteristics in the language switching paradigm, for example, they are present repeatedly and are semantically related to each other, compared with pictural stimuli. Thus, these unique characteristics might influence the operation of inhibitory control in bilingual language production, modulating the size and asymmetry of switching costs. Two picture control sets were set up to match those characteristics: (1) a semantic control set, in which picture stimuli belong to the same category group, such as, animals, occupations or transportation and specific semantic categories were presented in a blocked condition; and (2) a repeated control set, in which nine different picture stimuli were repeatedly presented like the Arabic digits from 1 to 9. When comparing the digit condition and the standard picture condition, analyses of naming latencies and accuracy rates revealed that switching costs were reliably smaller for digit naming than for picture naming and the L1 elicited more switching costs for picture naming than for digit naming. On the other hand, when comparing the digit condition and the two picture control sets, it was found that the magnitude of switching costs became identical and the asymmetry in switching costs became much smaller between the two languages.

Spatial and temporal processing difficulties in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia: An ERP study.

Magnocellular (M) deficit theory indicates that individuals with developmental dyslexia (DD) have low sensitivity to stimuli with high temporal frequencies (HTF) and low spatial frequencies (LSF). However, some studies found that temporal processing and spatial processing were correlated with different reading-related skills. Chinese is a logographic language, and visual skills are particularly important for reading in Chinese. It is necessary to investigate the temporal and spatial processing abilities in the M pathway of Chinese children with DD. Using electrophysiological recordings, the present study examined the mean amplitude and latency of P1 during a grating direction judgment task in 13 children with DD and 13 age-matched normal children. Dyslexic children showed a low amplitude and long latency of P1 in the HTF condition and LSF condition compared with age-matched children. In the HTF condition, the amplitude of P1 correlated with phonological awareness, and the latency of P1 correlated with reading fluency and rapid naming of digits. The amplitude of P1 in the LSF condition correlated with reading accuracy. This result suggested that Chinese children with DD had difficulties in both temporal and spatial processing in the M pathway. However, temporal processing and spatial processing played different roles in Chinese reading.

The role of parent-led and child-led home numeracy activities in early mathematical skills

Existing studies have shown mixed evidence for the role of the home numeracy environment (HNE) in supporting children’s early numeracy skills. To address some of the limitations of the existing literature, the present study used a multi-method approach to assess the parent-led HNE. Parents of children aged 3–5 years completed a questionnaire to assess the frequency of engagement in home numeracy activities and parent and child number talk was coded from play-based observations to assess the quality of engagement. This study also assessed the role of child-led home numeracy activities, including child number talk and Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity (SFON) on early numeracy skills. Children (n = 164) were assessed on six early number skills (counting, cardinal knowledge, ordering skills, digit naming, arithmetic and symbolic to non-symbolic number mapping). Parent-led activities (questionnaire-assessed HNE activities and parent number talk) were not significantly associated with the composite of these six numeracy skills. There was also no significant association between parent-reported frequency of engagement in HNE activities and parent number talk. Child-led skills (SFON and child number talk) were not significantly associated with the composite numeracy score. Children’s and parents’ use of cardinal number talk was associated with children’s performance on the cardinality task, although associations were small (rs =.22 to.31). This study adds further moderate evidence that parent-led home numeracy activities may not be associated with overall early numeracy skills, and we consider next steps for researchers seeking to understand the role of the HNE.

Examining the Predictors of Naming Speed among Thai Preschoolers: Confirming the Important Roles of Visual Perception and Sustained Attention

Investigations of reading readiness among early preschool children in Thailand have revealed contextual language and social elements that are different from speakers of other languages. The goal of this study was to further understand important variables that predict future reading readiness among Thai children, namely, the influence of visual perception and attention on naming ability. There were 158 preschoolers aged 5 -6.8 years of age, who performed the following tests: Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM), Attention Sustained (AS), Visual Perception (VP), and Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) tests. A cross-sectional correlational research design was conducted in this study. The results, which were examined using multiple regression, revealed a strong association among sustained attention, visual perception, intelligence, and naming speed. Sustained attention and visual perception were found to be strongly associated with rapid naming ability. There was a relationship between intelligence and attention. However, intelligence did not appear to be associated with naming speed. Sustained attention and general visual perception were shown to predict the speed of color naming up to 12.2% (Adjust R2 = .12, p < .05) and the speed of digit naming up to 14.1% (Adjust R2 = .14, p < .05). In conclusion, the visual perception and sustained attention abilities of Thai preschool children can predict their rapid naming ability. During early childhood, the importance of developing attentiveness and visual perception is indicated since it offers a positive reading acquisition ability.

Cascaded processing in naming and reading: Evidence from Chinese and Korean

Previous studies have shown that the ability to simultaneously process multiple items when these appear in serial format (called “cascaded” processing) is an important element of reading fluency. However, most evidence in support of cascaded processing comes from studies conducted in European orthographies. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the same findings generalize to nonlinear and nonalphabetic orthographies (i.e., Korean and Chinese). Serial and discrete naming of digits and objects were measured in a sample of 610 Chinese and Korean children from Grades 1, 3, 5, and 6. Children were also assessed on discrete word reading and on word- and text-reading fluency. Results of hierarchical regression analysis showed that discrete naming was the main predictor of discrete word reading in both languages as early as Grade 1. Serial digit naming was the main predictor of word-reading fluency across grades and languages. Finally, serial object naming made a unique contribution to word- and text-reading fluency in Chinese upper grades. Taken together, these findings suggest that, beyond accurate and fast word recognition, there is a universal multi-item (or cascaded) processing skill involved in serial naming and reading fluency.

Word- and Text-Level Processes Contributing to Fluent Reading of Word Lists and Sentences.

In this study, we investigated how word- and text-level processes contribute to different types of reading fluency measures. We aimed to increase our understanding of the underlying processes necessary for fluent reading. The sample included 73 Dutch Grade 3 children, who were assessed on serial word reading rate (familiar words), word-list reading fluency (increasingly difficult words), and sentence reading fluency. Word-level processes were individual word recognition speed (discrete word reading) and sequential processing efficiency (serial digit naming). Text-level processes were receptive vocabulary and syntactic skills. The results showed that word- and text-level processes combined accounted for a comparable amount of variance in all fluency outcomes. Both word-level processes were moderate predictors of all fluency outcomes. However, vocabulary only moderately predicted sentence reading fluency, and syntactic skills merely contributed to sentence reading fluency indirectly through vocabulary. The findings indicate that sequential processing efficiency has a crucial role in reading fluency across various measures besides individual word recognition speed. Additionally, text-level processes come into play when complexity and context availability of fluency measures increases, but the exact timing requires further study. Findings are discussed in terms of future directions and their possible value for diagnostic assessment and intervention of reading difficulties.

IS DIGIT SUPERIORITY INDISPENSABLE WITH REGARD TO SHORT TERM MEMORY SPAN?

It is known that digits have a positive effect on the performance of short term memory (STM) span and it is called the digit superiority effect. This study aims to examine the effect of familiar stimuli (digits, colors, digit names, color names, and words) on STM span. In order to measure STM capacity, a memory span task was used including the digit, word, and color span lists. 91 participants (44 female, 47 male) aged between 18-27 (M = 21,43, SD = 1.50) participated in the study that consisted of three different experiments. Results of Experiment 1 revealed that there was a significant difference between the digit name and word with regard to span size and total span. In Experiment 2 and 3, the main effect of familiar stimulus type on total span and span size was significant, and also the difference between all types of stimuli was significant (Experiment II, digit name&gt;word=color name; Experiment III, digit&gt;digit name&gt;color name&gt;color). The common result obtained from all experiments is that digits are superior with regard to STM span than other familiar stimuli types such as words, color names, colors. This study confirmed that digit superiority effect is indispensable on verbal and visual STM span. Keywords Digit superiority, short term memory, memory span

A predictive model for chinese children with developmental dyslexia—Based on a genetic algorithm optimized back-propagation neural network

The identification or the diagnosis of developmental dyslexia has long been a difficult issue, and traditional logistic regression predictive models have some defects. This study established a genetic algorithm optimized back-propagation neural network model to predict whether Chinese children have dyslexia based on data from 399 children (187 children with dyslexia and 212 typically developing children, 3rd–6th graders, aged 7–13 years). The model achieved an overall prediction accuracy of approximately 94%. Moreover, reading accuracy was the strongest factor in predicting Chinese dyslexic children, and phonological awareness, the accuracy rate of pseudocharacters, morphological awareness, reading fluency, rapid digit naming, and the reaction times of noncharacters also made important contributions to the prediction. In summary, the model we established in this study had an excellent predictive capability regarding Chinese children with/without developmental dyslexia. Furthermore, the genetic algorithm optimized back-propagation neural network model that substantially improves the prediction accuracy of Chinese dyslexia, has the potential to direct more targeted prevention and treatment strategies, and lay the foundation for the artificial intelligence expert diagnosis system for Chinese dyslexia.

How global digitalization influences the attractiveness of a firm digital name to foreign investors

Current IB studies focus mainly on firms’ adaptation to the technological impacts of digitalization on their internationalization activities. However, they have paid less attention to firms’ respon...

Who are the nonresponders to intervention among Chinese children learning English as a second language?

The purpose of this study was to examine the profiles of nonresponders among native Chinese-speaking students struggling in English reading before and after an intensive intervention in phonological awareness as well as letter knowledge. Struggling English learners (n = 72) were screened from 668 Grade 4 students based on their English word recognition, school English examinations, and nominations by teachers. About 43% of struggling readers were remediated in decoding skills after the intervention. Nonresponders were profiled on both phonological and orthographic processing skills in their first and second languages. More than 76% of nonresponders showed deficits in English rapid letter naming, letter sound knowledge and English orthographic image. Nonresponders also had deficits in Chinese phonological memory and rapid digit naming. Rapid letter naming made the most contribution to word reading after intervention and letter sound knowledge was the only significant predictor in 1-year follow-up word reading. The findings suggest that Chinese poor English learners have difficulties in both phonological and orthographic processing in English reading. Educational implications are discussed using the triangle model. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Exploring EFs and Math Abilities in Highly Deprived Contexts.

Executive functions (EFs)’ development is critically affected by childhood adversity exposure. Although recent studies underlined the deleterious effects of early life stresses on working memory (WM) and inhibitory control, they were scarcely investigated in war context especially in relation with learning abilities. In order to fill this gap, we designed a research with the aim to evaluate EFs together with early math skills. In particular, we conducted a study involving 150 children divided into three groups: 48 Yazidis (Mage = 71 months, SD = 6.59), 47 Syrian refugees (Mage = 68.77 months, SD = 7, age), and 55 Italians (Mage = 68.65 months, SD = 2.88) attending the third year of kindergarten in Italy or inserted in Psyco-Social-Support activities in Iraq. The children were evaluated with a variety of tasks assessing WM, inhibitory control, counting, digit-quantity mapping, and digit naming skills. The results indicated substantial differences both in EFs and early numerical abilities between the deprived groups and the Italian children. Data are discussed in terms of implications for children both exposed to mainstream school environments and living in socio-economically disadvantaged and deprived contexts.

From individual word recognition to word list and text reading fluency.

This study aimed to examine (a) the developing interrelations between the efficiency of reading individually presented words (i.e., isolated word recognition speed) and the efficiency of reading multiword sequences (i.e., word list and text reading fluency); (b) whether serial digit naming, indexing the ability to process multi-item sequences, accounts for variance in word list and text reading fluency beyond isolated word recognition speed; and (c) if these patterns of relations/effects differ between two alphabetic languages varying in orthographic consistency (English and Greek). In total, 710 Greek- and English-speaking children from Grades 1, 3, and 5 completed a serial digit naming task and a set of reading tasks, including unconnected words presented individually, unconnected words presented in lists, and sentences forming a meaningful passage. Our results showed that the relation between isolated word recognition speed and both word list and text reading fluency gradually decreased across grades, irrespective of contextual processing requirements. Moreover, serial digit naming uniquely predicted both word-list and text reading fluency in Grades 3 and 5, beyond isolated word recognition speed. The same pattern of results was observed across languages. These findings challenge the notion that individual word recognition and reading fluency differ only in text-level processing requirements. Instead, an additional component of processing multi-item sequences appears to emerge by Grade 3, after a basic level of both accuracy and speed in word recognition has been achieved, offering a potential mechanism underlying the transition from dealing with words one at a time to efficient processing of word sequences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)

Social Augmented Reality

My creative research looks at how Augmented Reality (AR) can help overcome Learning Disabilities. This focus has directed me to develop a number of ideas and concepts that seek to understand how the addition of information in an augmented view could help tackle some of the challenges different Learning Disabilities present while, at the same time, appealing to a larger audience. This concept was the foundation for creating the immersive mobile application tagAR™, which adds a digital name tag into your augmented view, replacing the traditional “Hello, my name is” sticker version. It allows you to see the names of people around you hovering above their heads at all times. Currently, the app is reliant on the user holding up a mobile device to use the camera so that the application can add the name tags to the view on your screen. As mainstream technology continues to advance, this app will work for wearable devices, eliminating the need to hold up your phone, which is a bit socially awkward. The target audience of the app is those who have trouble remembering people’s names, those who will benefit from having a visual of the names of people around them and for those who want to network and meet new people at social and educational events such as conferences or workshops. Through the design and development of this app, I have been exploring how the social aspect can be extended beyond just the name display and user search features to include a customizable tags that can be searchable, so users can connect, find people with similar interests, share contact information as well as connect with others on multiple social media platforms. I will discuss the research, design and developmental processes that influenced the concept and functionality of this social app using AR.

In Response.

We are indebted to Dr Khorasani et al1 for their comments on our manuscript, “The clinical use of cricoid pressure: first, do no harm.”2 It is a pleasure to correspond with clinicians (M.R.S.) who have worked directly with Dr Sellick. While the authors are correct in the “British” naming of digits, our main point was that clinicians apply cricoid pressure (CP) in a variety of (nonstandardized) ways; for instance, one of the authors (S.J.B.) was taught that appropriate application of CP during rapid induction and intubation sequence in obstetrics, obese patients, and those with a barrel chest included application of pressure using index finger (second digit) and middle finger (third digit) while the rest of the hand rested flat on the patient’s upper chest. This was done to allow more space for maneuvering the “stubby” (short) laryngoscope handle into optimal position for laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation. In nonobstetric (or nonobese) patients, CP was taught to be applied using thumb-index pressure. The overarching theme in our article2 was, and still is, that the technique of application of CP is highly variable in clinical practice and may affect its effectiveness. We also wholeheartedly agree that measurement of the CP force is important and preferred to estimation; this can best be accomplished using reliable devices, particularly because the target pressure on the cricoid ring is counteracted by laryngoscopy. We thank the authors for recommending the discussion of additional issues, such as the insertion of a gastric tube (GT), which also is not standardized in routine clinical practice. Management of GTs in patients at risk of pulmonary aspiration was superbly summarized previously by Dr Salem and colleagues1: “the GT should not be withdrawn and should be connected to suction during induction.” We cannot agree that “Patient positioning during CP is no longer a matter of dispute.”1 A recent international survey of over 10,000 anesthesiologists and airway experts revealed a high variability in patient positioning during rapid sequence induction.3 Both head-down and horizontal-supine positions are used frequently in clinical practice, likely due to the lack of high-quality evidence favoring a specific position. Because pulmonary aspiration still occurs in the head-up position despite the use of CP, proponents of the head-down positioning argue that any regurgitated material would flow out through the mouth and/or the patient’s nose rather than down the trachea. A recent manikin study found that the head-down tilt reduced the amount of aspirated fluid.4 We attempted to report a balanced review,2 and distanced ourselves from any beliefs or personal preferences; we emphasized key elements in future research, and the need for a universally accepted definition of pulmonary aspiration. Moreover, we pointed out the variability in practice across countries and continents. Indeed, it appears that the recent call for guidelines summarizing the “range of acceptable practices”3 should be seriously considered. We hope these (and other) discussions will generate renewed interest in the ubiquitous CP maneuver that was always intended to protect our patients from harm. Marko Zdravkovic, MDDepartment of Anaesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain ManagementUniversity Medical Centre MariborMaribor, SloveniaFaculty of MedicineUniversity of MariborMaribor, Slovenia Mark J. Rice, MDDepartment of AnesthesiologyVanderbilt University Medical CenterNashville, Tennessee Sorin J. Brull, MD, FCARCSI (Hon)Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative MedicineMayo Clinic College of Medicine and ScienceJacksonville, Florida[email protected]