Digestible Carbohydrate Content Research Articles

Dietary protein level influences growth, adult emergence, and susceptibility to bacterial infection in Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae

Abstract The larvae of the black soldier fly (BSFL), Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), are grown on diverse residual organic matter that differ in their protein content and contain a plethora of microorganisms. The effect of dietary protein level on the interaction of BSFL with entomopathogenic bacteria remains unexplored. In this study, we investigated the role of dietary protein level on BSFL growth, uric acid accumulation, and adult emergence and the outcome of the host-pathogen interaction between BSFL and the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5. We formulated three experimental diets in which digestible carbohydrate content was maintained at 50% of dry matter (DM), and crude protein was included at either 10% (low protein), 22.5% (medium protein), or 35% (high protein) DM, respectively. The influence of these diets on larval biomass, accumulation of uric acid in the larval hindgut, and subsequent adult emergence were recorded. In addition, the survival of BSFL fed on these diets was monitored for 64 hours after injection with an LD50 dose (1 μl of 2.5 × 103 CFU/ml) of P. protegens Pf-5. The biomass of 5-day-old larvae grown on a low-protein diet was higher than that of larvae grown on a high-protein diet. However, no such difference in biomass was observed in 8-day-old larvae. The amount of uric acid in the hindgut of larvae fed on high protein was three-fold and two-fold higher than larvae fed on low- and medium-protein diets, respectively. Adult emergence on a high-protein diet was significantly reduced and delayed compared to low- and medium-protein diets. BSFL fed a high-protein diet displayed significantly lower survival after infection with P. protegens Pf-5 than those fed a low-protein diet. Overall, feeding a high-protein diet reduced adult emergence and combined with infection with a Gram-negative bacterium survival of BSF larvae was strongly reduced.

Investigation of the functionality of macromolecules in the rheological and baking properties of oat milling fractions

The aim of this work was to investigate the role of oat constituents in rheological (mixing and pasting) properties and baking performance. To accomplish this, oat milling fractions with different particle size and dietary fibre contents were produced and analysed. Our results showed that with increasing flour particle size, in addition to fibre components, the level of proteins and lipids increased as well, while the digestible carbohydrate content decreased. There were changes also within the fine composition of macro components such as proteins (based on SDS-PAGE), starch (amylose to amylopectin ratio) and β-glucans (molecular weight distribution). With increasing fibre content, dough matrices were characterised by higher water absorption, longer development time, and lower softening, while flour slurries formed more viscous gels. Regarding baking properties of oat milling fractions, it was found that higher fibre content resulted in better crumb structure, supported by images of cross-sections and texture profile analysis. In addition, higher amylose to amylopectin ratio might have contributed to the formation of less resilient crumb structure. Correlation analysis between baking performance and rheological properties showed that doughs with higher water content and lower softening degree, as well as slurries with higher viscosity values resulted in better crumb structure. In conclusion, high-fibre oat milling fractions were found suitable to produce breads with acceptable quality traits. Our work might also contribute to expand our knowledge about the functionality of oat constituents and to develop new, fibre-rich oat-based products supporting the consumption of more dietary fibre.

Relationship between substrate composition and larval weight: a simple growth model for black soldier fly larvae

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) could play an important role as a high-quality source of protein, lipid, and other nutrients not only for animal feed but also for human consumption. However, feeding material costs for the larvae strongly influence the economic feasibility of the feed source. Therefore, the performance of several side streams originating from food production, which are legally permitted in European Union as feed grade substrates, were tested as feed in rearing BSFL. The substrates differed in their composition with respect to macronutrients, like proteins and lipids, and minor nutrients, like minerals. A commercial chicken feed substrate was used as a control, and it was replaced stepwise by the investigated substrate. The effect of the replacement on gained larval weight, survival rate, and feed conversion ratio was determined. Data were used to develop a model to predict larval weight based on the substrate contents of crude lipid and crude protein. The lipid content distinctly influenced the larval growth enabling a maximum weight gain at moderate lipid contents, whereas a very sharp decrease in larval weight gain was found for lower lipid contents in the substrate. On the other hand, influence of protein content on weight gain was linear with higher weights at higher protein contents. For the substrates included, a direct influence of the content of digestible carbohydrates on weight was not found demonstrating that this component was not the limiting growth factor in our study.

Effect of Black Cumin Cake Addition on the Chemical Composition, Glycemic Index, Antioxidant Activity, and Cooking Quality of Durum Wheat Pasta.

Pasta is a good carrier for plant enrichment substances due to its popularity among consumers. The purpose of the study was to investigate the functional potential and optimize the recipe of pasta made from durum semolina with the addition of black cumin cake at the level of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%. The use of black cumin cake resulted in a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in the content of protein, fat, ash, and fiber, including both the insoluble and soluble fractions. A reduction in the digestible carbohydrate content, in vitro starch hydrolysis index (HI), was observed. Pasta with a reduced glycemic index (GI) compared to the semolina control was obtained. The content of polyphenols, including flavonoids, in the cake-enriched pasta increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05), which resulted in higher antioxidant activity against DPPH. The increase in the iron content was over 2.5 times higher in the sample with the 25% addition of black cumin cake than in the control sample. The functional addition significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the loss of dry matter and influenced the cooking time of pasta.

Energy utilisation efficiencies of digestible protein, fat and carbohydrates for African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

In this study, the effect of dietary macronutrient composition on the energy utilisation efficiency for growth using the digestible energy (DE) approach was evaluated for African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Furthermore, the energy utilisation efficiencies of digestible protein, fat and carbohydrates for growth were estimated using the net energy (NE) approach. The experiment had a 4 × 2 factorial design. C. gariepinus (71.6 g) were fed one of four diets, each at two feeding levels (12 vs 22 g.kg−0.8.d−1), for 30 days. Diets were formulated with the aim to create large contrasts in the digestible protein (dCP), fat (dFat) and carbohydrate (dCarb) content among the four diets. These contrasts in dietary composition and feeding levels enabled multiple regression analysis of energy retention (RE) as a function of dCP, dFat and dCarb intake. Using the DE approach, the dietary macronutrient content affected the energy utilisation efficiency (kgDE) of C. gariepinus. Increasing the dietary carbohydrate content reduced the kgDE from 93.5% to 78.5% in low starch diets compared to high starch diets. Thus the relationship between DE and RE is affected by the dietary macronutrient composition. With the NE approach, energy utilisation efficiencies of digestible protein, fat and carbohydrates for growth of C. gariepinus were estimated at 86%, 95% and 59%, respectively. Results of the present study indicated the probability of biases in feed evaluation and formulation when using the DE approach. Thus the NE approach is advisable as means for energy evaluation of feed/ingredients for C. gariepinus.

The content of essential nutrients in expanded gluten-free grains and its use in cereal bars for children

The objective. Determination of the content of main nutrients in expanded gluten-free grains for the purpose of its use in the development of grain bars for children over three years old. Materials and methods. The object of the study was the expanded grain of gluten-free crops: millet, rice, buckwheat, amaranth and quinoa. The study of the content of the main food substances was carried out by infrared spectroscopy. Results. As a result of the conducted studies, data were obtained on the content of the main nutrients: proteins, fats and carbohydrates, including mono- and disaccharides, as well as dietary fibers. The protein content in the expanded grain is in the range from 7.4 to 12.0%. A high level of protein content is noted in millet and buckwheat grains. The least amount of protein is found in rice. Fats are contained in the range from 1.1% (in rice) to 4.3% (in amaranth). The content of digestible carbohydrates in most of the studied samples of exposed gluten-free grains is at the level of 68.8–71.6%. The largest amount of carbohydrates is determined in the expanded grain of rice – 81.2%. In all the samples under consideration, there is a small amount of simple sugars – 1.3–2.1%. Indigestible carbohydrates are contained in the range from 2.9 to 8.1%, and the largest amount of them is contained in the amaranth grain. The calculation of the content of the main nutrients and the energy value of gluten-free cereal bars using the studied expanded grain was carried out. According to the data obtained, children over the age of three years consuming 100 g of gluten-free cereal bars on average will satisfy the daily need by 6.9%, including vegetable protein – by 19.6%; fats – 1.3%, carbohydrates – 23.1%, including dietary fiber – 7.3% and energy – 14.5%. Conclusion. The relatively high content of vegetable protein, carbohydrates, including dietary fiber, low content of simple sugars and fat in the expanded grain of the gluten-free crops under consideration, as well as the calculation of meeting the recommended daily needs of the child in main nutrients and energy indicate the prospects for the development of gluten-free products in the form of grain bars for children over three years old, which will contribute to safely improve the provision of grain-based nutrients to patients with various forms of gluten intolerance. Keywords: children over three years old, expanded grain, gluten intolerance, gluten-free products, grain bars

Production of sourdough and gluten-free bread with brown rice and carioca and cowpea beans flours: biochemical, nutritional and structural characteristics

The gluten-free alternative flours and the application of natural fermentation in the breads production are promising technologies to improving sensory, structural and nutritional properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the applicability and quality of gluten-free breads made with sour dough from wholegrain rice flours (BR and BRY), carioca beans (BP and BPY) and cowpea (BV and BVY). The sour doughs were prepared without and with the addition of biological yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) represented by the letter “Y”. The breads made from these doughs were subjected to the analysis of: pH, titratable total acidity, color, water activity, moisture, image analysis, specific volume, instrumental texture, proximate composition and energy value. The results indicated higher ash, protein and dietary fiber content in BP and BV flours. At the end of fermentation, the BR and BRY masses showed greater acidity. The doughs made with beans showed greater expansion volumes. Lower volume, firmness and hardness were verified for BBRY bread and the opposite was verified for BVB bread. The BBV, BBVY, BBP and BBPY breads had higher ash, protein and dietary fiber contents and lower digestible carbohydrate content. BPB and BVB breads showed higher protein digestibility and the opposite was observed for BBRY (70.60%), BPBY (81.09%) and BVBY (80.89%). The use of bean flour in the preparation of breads resulted in products rich in dietary fiber and proteins, especially carioca beans.

Comparative analysis of nutrient composition and glycaemic indices of nine sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) varieties

Sweet potatoes are one of the major tuberous roots consumed around the world. The objective of the present study was to determine the nutritional composition, glycaemic indices and glycaemic loads of selected Sri Lankan sweet potato varieties, in order to address the inadequacy of information and the controversial findings on glycaemic indices. Nutrient composition (moisture, ash, digestible carbohydrates, dietary fiber, crude protein and fat) of boiled sweet potatoes, GI and glycaemic loads (GL) of nine varieties were determined using standard methods. Digestible carbohydrate content ranged between 29-88% on dry weight. Ash, crude protein and crude fat contents of the varieties ranged between 3.1-5.0%, 3.0-5.9% and 2.6-5.3% on dry weight basis (DW) respectively. The total dietary fiber content was above 9.5% DW in the studied varieties. Moisture content of boiled sweet potato tubers were 72-81% on fresh weight basis and both the GIs (86-119) and GLs (>20) were high. However, the GL reduced to medium or low when considering an actual edible portion for all the varieties except for two varieties. Sweet potatoes are a good source of highly available carbohydrates which elicit high GIs.

Edible cream-like mass: better quality, higher productivity

Edible cream-like mass has a number of advantages over other confectionery masses. Being more efficient in production, they are also more digestible, more popular, and have a gentle creamy structure. However, they also have a number of drawbacks such as inconsistency, low porosity, high sugar capacity and caloric content. It is not just the chemical composition of ingredients or their basic physical, structural, and mechanical properties, but also the design of whipping machines and the whipping settings that affect the way such pastes develop their creamy structure and other properties. The paper evaluates the production of sugar-less maltodextrin-based cream-like pastes using a highly efficient experimental semi-industrial whipping machine. For production, we used high-DE maltodextrin as well as special fats. We have studied how the ratio of ingredients could affect the quality and the structural-mechanical properties of such mass. We have managed to optimize the recipes to assure the best quality. The samples we produced are of better quality, lower sugar capacity and caloric content. Realization of the presented development will allow one to intensify production process twice, to lower power - and labor input of production, prime cost of products 1.5 times, content of digestible carbohydrates by 50%, the caloric content of products by 126 kcal, to reduce floor spaces.

Pulsed drought: The effects of varying water stress on plant physiology and predicting herbivore response

AbstractClimate change is predicted to increase the frequency of drought conditions and alter plant–insect interactions. Despite over 530 studies on the effects of water‐deficit stress on plant–insect interactions, we still cannot accurately predict plant–insect interactions under drought conditions. Most studies have focused on how insect herbivores respond to water‐deficit‐stressed plants, with little attention on how stressed plants and changes in plant physiology may contribute to the variation in herbivore response. Variation in herbivore response to water‐deficit‐stressed plants may be due to stress‐induced changes in plants and how these changes differ with stress severity. In this study, we determined the effects of water‐deficit stress on cotton (Delta Pine 174RF) physiology in an agroecosystem using pulsed moderate and severe stress. Our goal was to determine how moderate and severe water‐deficit stress affect cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) physiology differently in terms of photosynthesis, development, water use, and nutrient content. We found that moderate and severely stressed plants had many different physiological responses that may contribute to the variation we see in herbivore response to stressed plants. For instance, moderately stressed plants were more vigorous and more developed than severely stressed plants, whereas severely stressed plants had more amino acids than moderately stressed plants. We predict that insect herbivores feeding on moderately and severely stressed plants would encounter differences in C assimilation, water content (stomatal conductance, transpiration), chlorophyll content, and concentrations of amino acids and digestible carbohydrates. It is clear that field studies should consider how differences in stress severity can affect plant–insect interactions.

Особенностинормированиялегкопереваримыхуглеводовврационахвысокопродуктивныхкоров

В опыте, проведённом на двух группах коров голштинизированной чёрнопёстрой породы с удоем 8000 кг молока за лактацию по 10 голов в каждой, установлено, что изменение отношения распадаемого протеина и легкогидролизуемых углеводов в рационе кормления коров в новотельный период с 0,40 до 0,45 способствовало увеличению как удоя молока стандартной (4) жирности в опытной группе на 7,0 (Р 0,05) за 120 дней лактации по сравнению с контролем, так и выхода молочного жира и белка соответственно на 6,8 и 7,4 (Р 0,05). При этом затраты кормов на продуцирование 1 кг молока снизились на 6,8. В биохимических исследованиях крови установлена тенденция более интенсивного протекания белкового и углеводного обмена в крови коров опытной группы, которая проявилась в увеличении концентрации альбуминов на 10,6 и альбуминглобулинового коэффициента на 14,0, а также в повышении концентрации глюкозы на 7,6 по сравнению с контролем. Расчёты экономической эффективности показали, что включение в состав рациона коров опытной группы 0,5 кг кормовой патоки и 12,0 кг комбикормов по двум рецептам вместо 2,0 и 10,7 кг соответственно в контроле увеличило общие затраты на производство молока в опытной группе. Однако себестоимость 100 кг молока базисной жирности в опытной группе снизилась на 1,7, а прибыль от его реализации в расчёте на 1 корову была выше контроля на 4075,3 руб. The experiment was conducted on two groups of Holstein whiteandblack cows (10 heads each) producing 8000 kg of milk per lactation. Increase in degradable proteintoeasily digestible carbohydrate ratio in a diet of newlycalved cows from 0.40 to 0.45 improved 4milk productivity by 7.0 (Р 0,05) for 120 days of lactation as well as milk fat and protein contents by 6.8 and 7.4 (Р 0,05). Forage costs per 1 kg of milk dropped by 6.8. Blood tests showed that protein and carbohydrate metabolisms were more intensive resulting in higher concentrations of albumin by 10.6, albuminglobulin coefficient by 14.0 and glucose by 7.6, compared to the control. Feeding cows with 0.5 kg of molasses and 12.0 kg of feedstuff daily instead of the respective 2.0 and 10.7 kg raised total costs for milk production. Production costs for 100 kg of milk reduced by 1.7, while profit improved by 4075.3 per cow.

Endogenous rice endosperm hemicellulose slows in vitro starch digestibility

SummaryHemicellulose, the primary non‐starch polysaccharide originating from cell walls of rice endosperm, greatly influences the digestibility of starch in food matrix. Three rice varieties differing in total dietary fibre content were treated with hemicellulose and in vitro starch digestion with α‐amylase was conducted. Removing the hemicellulase significantly promoted starch digestion, and the magnitude of the impact was dependent on rice variety. The impact was more pronounced in variety cw high in apparent amylose and total dietary fibre content, while was negligible on the japonica rice Nipponbare. Endogenous hemicellulose slowed in vitro starch digestibility in rice by interacting with amylose and amylopectin, particularly with the long chain amylopectins, inherent existing and during the cooking process. Non‐starch polysaccharides, including hemicellulose, can be tailored in rice to modify the digestible carbohydrate content; however, more research is required to fully understand the interactions between non‐starch polysaccharides and starch and their influences on grain quality.

Quantifying Plant Soluble Protein and Digestible Carbohydrate Content, Using Corn (Zea mays) As an Exemplar.

Elemental data are commonly used to infer plant quality as a resource to herbivores. However, the ubiquity of carbon in biomolecules, the presence of nitrogen-containing plant defensive compounds, and variation in species-specific correlations between nitrogen and plant protein content all limit the accuracy of these inferences. Additionally, research focused on plant and/or herbivore physiology require a level of accuracy that is not achieved using generalized correlations. The methods presented here offer researchers a clear and rapid protocol for directly measuring plant soluble proteins and digestible carbohydrates, the two plant macronutrients most closely tied to animal physiological performance. The protocols combine well characterized colorimetric assays with optimized plant-specific digestion steps to provide precise and reproducible results. Our analyses of different sweet corn tissues show that these assays have the sensitivity to detect variation in plant soluble protein and digestible carbohydrate content across multiple spatial scales. These include between-plant differences across growing regions and plant species or varieties, as well as within-plant differences in tissue type and even positional differences within the same tissue. Combining soluble protein and digestible carbohydrate content with elemental data also has the potential to provide new opportunities in plant biology to connect plant mineral nutrition with plant physiological processes. These analyses also help generate the soluble protein and digestible carbohydrate data needed to study nutritional ecology, plant-herbivore interactions and food-web dynamics, which will in turn enhance physiology and ecological research.

Functional Properties, Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity of Purple Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) Waste: Comparison with Commercial Fibers

The aim of this study was to determine the proximate chemical composition, dietary fiber functional properties, viscosity, total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and color of purple cactus pear waste (PCPW) in comparison with commercial fibers. PCPW had similar moisture, ash and functional properties as the other fibers, also low protein, fat and total dietary fiber content but showed higher fat absorption capacity (3.38 g g−1). All fibers had a non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behavior and had high total phenolic content except the commercial fiber of Plantagum psylium which formed a gel and had the lowest total phenolic content. PCPW had the highest antioxidant activity measured by ABTS with 1485.14 µmol TE 100 g−1 dry basis, high content of digestible carbohydrates (73%) and an intense red color in comparison to the commercial samples.

Determination of Glycaemic Responses of Low Fat Milk Incorporated with Whey Proteins and Oats Powder

Objective: Investigation of glycaemic responses of low fat milk, enriched with whey proteins. Design: Randomized crossover study. Participants: Healthy volunteers (n=11) including both sexes (6 males and 5 females), aged between 20 and 30 years and with a body mass index of 18.5-23.5. Main outcome measures: Blood glucose concentrations at fasting and 30, 45, 60, 90, 120 min were measured following ingestion of; skimmed milk powder, incorporated with extra whey proteins and oats flour (4:1 ratio), containing 50 g of available carbohydrates. Glycaemic Index values were expressed as the average value of 11 subjects. Results: GI for the prepared formulation was 12 ± 2 and the average peak reduction of compared to the standard (Glucose) was 37.7%. Proximate analysis of the product indicated a higher total protein content (36.08 ± 2.5%) compared to fresh milk powder (21.9 ± 2.7%) and very low fat content (4.34 ± 0.5%) compared to fresh milk powder (29.3 ± 2.1%). Conclusions: Incorporation of whey powder have significantly reduced the Glycaemic index of milk (p<0.05). Although digestible carbohydrate content was increased by addition of oats and also being lower in fat; low GI milk powder formulations can be developed by incorporating whey proteins and cereal grains like oats.

Physiochemical Characteristics and Molecular Structures for Digestible Carbohydrates of Silages.

The main objectives of this study were (1) to assess the magnitude of differences among new barley silage varieties (BS) selected for varying rates of in vitro neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility (ivNDFD; Cowboy BS with higher ivNDFD, Copeland BS with intermediate ivNDFD, and Xena BS with lower ivNDFD) with regard to their carbohydrate (CHO) molecular makeup, CHO chemical fractions, and rumen degradability in dairy cows in comparison with a new corn silage hybrid (Pioneer 7213R) and (2) to quantify the strength and pattern of association between the molecular structures and digestibility of carbohydrates. The carbohydrate-related molecular structure spectral data was measured using advanced vibrational molecular spectroscopy (FT/IR). In comparison to BS, corn silage showed a significantly (P < 0.05) higher level of starch and energy content and higher degradation of dry matter (DM). Cowboy BS had lower feeding value (higher indigestible fiber content and lower starch content) and lower DM degradation in the rumen compared to other BS varieties (P < 0.05). The spectral intensities of carbohydrates were significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with digestible carbohydrate content of the silages. In conclusion, the univariate approach with only one-factor consideration (ivNDFD) might not be a satisfactory method for evaluating and ranking BS quality. FT/IR molecular spectroscopy can be used to evaluate silage quality rapidly, particularly the digestible fiber content.

Mycelial Growth, Fruiting Body Production and Proximate Composition of Pleurotus djamor on Different Substrate

Pleurotus djamor is a exotic wood-rotting edible mushroom in the Philippines. The mycelial growth and fruiting body performance of P. djamor were evaluated in different culture media, spawning materials, and substrate formulations. The proximate composition of this mushroom was also analyzed. Coconut water gelatin (CWG) showed the fastest mycelial growth which completely colonized the media in 8.2 days of incubation. Sweet sorghum grain was the best spawning material. Moreover, a combination of rice straw, cocopeat, and rice bran at 7:3:1 ratio recorded the most number of flushes (6.6), highest yield (256.6 g), and highest biological efficiency (31.10%). This substrate formulation had the highest NPK content. In proximate composition analysis, P. djamor grown in rice straw and cocopeat combination contained 90.15 ± 0.27% moisture, 0.87 ± 0.22% ash, 0.12 ± 0.00% crude protein, 0.17 ± .01% crude fat, 3.10 ± 0.24% crude fiber, and 5.59% nitrogen free extract or digestible carbohydrate content.

Determination of True Metabolizable Energy Content of Bobwhite Foods

True metabolizable energy (TME) and nitrogen-corrected true metabolizable energy (TMEn) bioassays were used to determine available energy content of several northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) foods. A proximate analysis and trypsin inhibitor (TI) activity were also determined for each food. Corn (Zea mays) was found to contain the highest amount ofTMEn (4.37 kcal/g dry matter) compared with Fayette soybeans (Glycine max; 3.93 kcal/g), Korean lespedeza (Kummerowia stipuki.ceae; 3.73 kcal/g), Marion lespedeza (K. striata; 3.71 kcal/g), tick-trefoil (Desmodium spp.; 3.51 kcal/g), and wild trailing (WI') soybeans (3.24 kcal/g). The higher TMEn value of corn was attributed to its high digestible carbohydrate content and lack of appreciable TI activity.

Spatio-Temporal, Genotypic, and Environmental Effects on Plant Soluble Protein and Digestible Carbohydrate Content: Implications for Insect Herbivores with Cotton as an Exemplar

Plant soluble protein and digestible carbohydrate content significantly affect insect herbivore fitness, but studies reporting plant protein and carbohydrate content are rare. Instead, the elements nitrogen and carbon often are used as surrogates for plant protein and digestible carbohydrate content, respectively. However, this is problematic for two reasons. First, carbon is found in all organic molecules, which precludes strong correlations with ecologically important dietary macronutrients (e.g., digestible carbohydrates, the primary energy source for most insect herbivores). Second, some elements (e.g., nitrogen) are present in both macronutrients (e.g., protein) and non-nutritive secondary compounds (e.g., alkaloids, protease inhibitors); in these cases N values would greatly overestimate protein available for an insect herbivore. Thus, the objective of this study was to explicitly document plant protein-carbohydrate content and assess its variation in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense), which is a nutritional resource for a number of insect herbivores. We did this by measuring plant soluble protein (P) and digestible carbohydrate (C) content across seven plant tissues, five varieties, and two growing environments. Significant differences in P and C concentration, total macronutrient content (P+C), and P:C ratio were observed across plant tissues, plant age and environment; smaller differences were seen across plant genotype. Foliar tissues had higher total P+C content compared to reproductive tissues, except for developing seeds and developing flowers, which contained twice the total P+C content; these two tissues also had the highest P content. Our data show that even agricultural monocultures offer a highly heterogeneous protein-carbohydrate landscape for insect herbivores. Characterizing plant resources using nutritional currencies (e.g., protein and carbohydrates) that are ecologically and physiologically-relevant to insect herbivores can be used to enhance our understanding of plant-insect interactions.

The difference between available carbohydrates and glycaemic index of white rice and brown rice flour food in healthy and diabetes

Carbohydrates in foods are in two broad groups, 'available' and 'unavailable'. The true meaning of carbohydrate of a food means available (digestible) carbohydrate. Moreover, only a percentage of total carbohydrate ingested will be absorbed and the percentage absorbed will vary between carbohydrates and the availability of fibre contents in the food ingested. Unavailable carbohydrate, which is not digested by the endogenous secretions of human digestive tract. The digestible carbohydrate content in a food is an important factor in determining postprandial blood glucose levels. Rice and rice flour consumption in the world population is increasing. The current Dietary Guidelines for Americans identifies grains, including rice, as one of the primary sources for carbohydrate intake and recommends that at least half of carbohydrate intake come from whole grains. The objective of the study was to determine the available carbohydrates of white and brown rice flour made food and glycaemic index (GI) for same flour made food in healthy and diabetic patients. The available carbohydrate in white and brown rice flour made food were 24.2 ± 2.5%, 23.1 ± 0.9 respectively. The GI of white and brown rice flour made food in healthy individuals, controlled and uncontrolled diabetes were 75.1 ± 3.3, 72 ± 2.74, 89 ± 2.6, 84 ± 1.4, 97 ± 1.1 and 95 ± 1.3 respectively. Available carbohydrate is low in brown rice flour compared to white rice flour. Healthy individual shows low GI compared to both controlled and uncontrolled diabetes for the same amount of available carbohydrates contained food. Available carbohydrate of a food and GI are important when advising people with diabetes.