Different-Sex Couples Research Articles

His and Hers Earnings Trajectories: Economic Homogamy and Long-Term Earnings Inequality Within and Between Different-Sex Couples

His and Hers Earnings Trajectories: Economic Homogamy and Long-Term Earnings Inequality Within and Between Different-Sex Couples

Marriage, cohabitation, and institutional context: Household specialization among same‐sex and different‐sex couples

AbstractObjectiveThis study examines how marriage‐cohabitation gaps in household specialization (labor supply and earnings) vary across institutional contexts for same‐sex couples (SSCs) and different‐sex couples (DSCs) in Canada.BackgroundPrior research suggests that marriage‐cohabitation gaps are smaller in contexts where cohabitation is more prevalent, but it has overlooked how legal protections (at the contextual level) and gender composition (at the couple level) moderate this association. As a result, little is known about whether differences in household specialization stem from heightened gendered expectations attached to marriage or stronger legal protections for married couples. This study posits that marriage‐cohabitation gaps will be larger in contexts where legal protections for cohabitors are less marriage‐like.MethodsUsing the 2006 and 2016 Canadian Census and the 2011 National Household Survey, I estimate ordinal and fractional logit models to examine marriage‐cohabitation gaps in specialization among all couples (N = 2,788,055) and couples with young children (N = 826,305).ResultsAmong DSCs, marriage‐cohabitation gaps were larger in Québec than in English Canada vis‐à‐vis earnings but not labor supply. Patterns among SSCs were more heterogeneous: gaps in labor supply were larger in English Canada for female couples but larger in Québec for male couples. Gaps in earnings were generally larger in Québec, with few exceptions. However, DSCs consistently specialized more than SSCs.ConclusionWhile existing research suggests marriage‐cohabitation gaps in household specialization are largely explained by the prevalence of cohabitation, my results indicate that legal protections (at the contextual level) and gender composition (at the couple level) play a more decisive role.

Matching Patterns among Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples in Latin America

Using microdata from the censuses of eight countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and Uruguay), this paper describes matching patterns by age, ethnicity, and education among same-sex and different-sex couples. It shows that same-sex couples are more diverse than different-sex couples in terms of age, ethnicity, and education, although the differences are not large or statistically significant for ethnicity and education in all countries. It also reports notable differences between male and female same-sex couples, particularly in age and education matching.

Housework among same‐sex and different‐sex couples: The roles of time and earnings

AbstractObjectiveThis study examined how paid work time and earnings are related to time spent in various types of housework tasks among people in same‐sex couples (SSCs) and how these relationships differ from those among people in different‐sex couples (DSCs).BackgroundPrior research on housework among people in SSCs mostly relied on convenience samples and self‐report measures of housework. These methods may have drawbacks related to the selectivity of the samples and the accuracy of the housework measures. Specifically, SSCs might try to portray their housework divisions as more equal than they actually are.MethodThe current study used nationally representative, time diary data from the American Time Use Survey (N = 50,899) to estimate the relationships between paid work time, earnings, and time spent in various types of housework tasks (feminine, masculine, and gender‐neutral tasks) among people in SSCs and DSCs.ResultsPaid work time was related to housework time among both men and women in SSCs, but earnings were only related to housework among men in SSCs. Furthermore, some associations between paid work characteristics and housework were stronger among men in SSCs compared with men in DSCs. Among women, the pattern of couple‐type differences in the associations of interest was more nuanced.ConclusionUsing high‐quality, nationally representative data, the results point to a greater level of specialization of paid work and housework responsibilities among people in SSCs relative to people in DSCs than has previously been observed in the bulk of the literature.

New Results on the Disparities between Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples in the Home Mortgage Market

New Results on the Disparities between Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples in the Home Mortgage Market

Risk Factors Related to Intimate Partner Violence in Same- and Different-Sex Couples

Despite its high prevalence in same-sex couples, the study of intimate partner violence (IPV) has been mostly focused on different-sex couples. When lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) samples are considered, similarities between same- and different-sex couples arise, as well as some specificities regarding same-sex couples. Although several studies report a higher IPV prevalence among LGB couples in comparison to heterosexual couples, less research focuses on the differences among the violent dynamics and the influence of risk factors, and most do not consider a Spanish sample. After being recruited on social networks and Spanish lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) associations, a sample of 605 Spanish people participated in this study (71.7% female and 35.7% engaged in a same-sex relationship) through an online survey that included self-reported measures on IPV experiences and behavioral risk factors (witnessing interparental violence; risky sexual behaviors; tobacco, alcohol, and drug consumption). Results suggest a similar IPV prevalence between same- and different-sex couples. Moreover, different IPV types presented comparable prevalence among individuals engaged in gay and lesbian couples. Multinomial logistic regressions showed IPV and partner’s sex have a significant effect on an individual adopting risky sexual behaviors and consuming alcohol, with those behaviors having a higher prevalence in individuals engaged in same-sex couples. These results differed by sex, as the impact of IPV and partner’s sex on adopting risky sexual behaviors and consuming alcohol only existed among female participants. Our findings accentuate the need to consider the different pressures and IPV experiences among same- and different-sex couples while creating interventions.

Interpartner Agreement on Intimate Partner Violence Reports: Evidence From a Community Sample of Different-Sex Couples.

An accurate assessment of intimate partner violence (IPV) is crucial to guide public policy and intervention. The Conflict Tactic Scales Revised (CTS-2) is one of the most widely used instruments to do so. Despite its good psychometric properties, research on interpartner agreement has pointed to low-to-moderate estimates, which generated some concerns about the validity of the results obtained through single-partner reports. This cross-sectional study introduces indexes that have not previously been used to assess interpartner agreement. Both partners' reports on perpetration and victimization were analyzed in a community sample of 268 different-sex couples. Our results generally pointed to better agreement levels on IPV occurrence than frequency, suggesting that the proxy method (i.e., using a single-partner report) could be a reliable method for assessing IPV occurrence but not its frequency in this population. Findings are discussed as well as the advantages and constraints of different IPV assessment practices.

Debt Problem of One Partner and Depressive Morbidity in the Other: A 2-Year Follow-up Register Study of Different-Sex Couples in Sweden

This study sets out to examine whether depressive morbidity varies by status of financial indebtedness of a spouse or cohabiting partner. For this purpose, individuals aged between 20 and 60 with a different-sex spouse/cohabiting partner with a registration date for a debt at the Swedish Enforcement Authority (SEA) during 2017 (n = 6979) are followed-up for a 2-year period for prescriptions of antidepressants and compared with a sample from the general Swedish population (n = 29,708). The analysis is based on penalized maximum likelihood logistic regressions. Both women and men were more likely to suffer from depressive morbidity if the spouse/cohabiting partner had been registered at the SEA in 2017 and was still active for a debt in the SEA’s register in 2018 (OR 1.31 and OR 1.57, respectively), irrespective of their own health, employment, socioeconomic status, and other background variables. This also held true for men if a wife/cohabiting partner had been registered at the SEA in 2017 but was no longer active for a debt in the SEA’s register in 2018 (OR 1.29). For women, on the other hand, only those with no history (11-year period) of prescription of psychotropic medications were also at an enhanced risk of depressive morbidity if a husband/cohabiting partner had gone from being registered for a debt at the SEA in 2017, to not being registered as active for a debt in the SEA’s register in 2018 (OR 1.24). The results reinforce the importance of acknowledging that negative effects of financial indebtedness extend beyond the individual debtor.

Prepandemic and Pandemic Marriages among Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples.

Most states experienced declines in marriages during the pandemic, with variation across states. Given that marriages to same-sex couples make up a small share of total marriages, these trends are overwhelmingly representative of marriages of different-sex couples. To test if the decline observed among marriages of different-sex couples is also observed among marriages of same-sex couples, the authors calculated ratios (2020 marriage count divided by 2019 marriage count) for 13 states, disaggregating marriages of same- and different-sex couples. The 13 states selected were the only states in which same-sex marriage administrative data were available. The results reveal disparate effects of the pandemic on marriage counts for same-sex and different-sex couples. For 11 of the states examined, marriages of same-sex couples either did not decline or declined less than marriages of different-sex couples. Further investigation is warranted as more state-level data on same-sex marriage become available.

Visualizing Racial-Ethnic Differences in the Division of Housework among Different-Sex Couples in the United States.

Recent research shows important racial/ethnic differences in how individuals spend time in housework. Yet our understanding of how the racial/ethnic makeup of couples shapes gender equality in the division of housework remains limited. The authors use couple-level data from the 2017-2019 waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to visually illustrate how each partner's race/ethnicity and their combination are associated with the gender division of housework among Black, Hispanic, and white individuals. The results show significant heterogeneity in the share of housework and total housework hours among racial/ethnic groups, underscoring the need for a couple-level understanding of how the racial/ethnic makeup of couples may shape the gender division of housework.

The Role of Pornography Use in Intimate Partner Violence in Different-Sex Couples: A Prospective Longitudinal Study.

Pornography use and intimate partner violence (IPV) are both prevalent in romantic relationships. However, information is lacking about whether pornography use predicts IPV. This study examined the relation between frequency of pornography use (FPU) and IPV across a span of 4 months in a sample of 132 different-sex couple dyads. At least one partner in each couple was attending a Canadian university. Participants (N = 264) completed online measures of pornography use, IPV, and social desirability at baseline and at a 4-month follow-up. Two longitudinal actor–partner interdependence models using a structural equation framework to conduct path analyses demonstrated that (a) higher FPU among men at baseline predicted increases in IPV perpetration and victimization from baseline to 4-month follow-up for both men and women and (b) women’s baseline FPU did not predict change in IPV over time for themselves or their partners. These findings suggest that frequent pornography use among male partners in different-sex romantic relationships may represent an under-recognized risk factor for IPV, and further research is needed to identify latent factors that may be contributing to this relation. Although women’s baseline FPU did not predict changes in IPV over time, this may be because women used pornography less frequently than men.

Health Care Expenditures and Financial Burden: A Comparison of Adults in Same-Sex Couples and Different-Sex Couples

We used data from the 2014-2017 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey to compare health care expenditures and financial burden between adults in same-sex couples ( n = 514) and adults in different-sex couples ( n = 41,043). Compared with men in different-sex couples ($3,994), men in same-sex couples ($6,896) were more likely to spend more on health care, especially on prescription medications ($2,745 vs. $1,050), which was primarily driven by antiviral medications ($1,061 vs. $35). Women in same-sex couples ($5,886) reported similar health care expenditures compared with women in different-sex couples ($5,619). However, women in same-sex couples were significantly more likely to experience financial burden compared with women in different-sex couples (25.7% vs. 11.3%). We speculate that the disparities reported here are due to a variety of issues, including elevated health needs requiring prescriptions for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) men and lower incomes for LGBT women. More research is needed to understand health services utilization and expenditure patterns among LGBT populations.

Specialization in Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples

We examine time allocation decisions in same-sex and different-sex couples from a Beckerian comparative advantage perspective. In particular, we estimate the comparative advantage relationship between time spent on either market or household activities and a dummy for being the highest earner in a couple on samples of same-sex and different-sex couples. Using the American Time Use Survey (ATUS), we find that same-sex couples specialize not as much as different-sex couples. We argue that these specialization differences are driven by the most traditional different-sex couples. Without married couples with wives at home taking care of children and husbands working outside the home, which represent at most 20 percent of all different-sex couples, we find that the highest earner in a couple spends 80 minutes more per day on market work and 40 minutes less per day on household work, regardless their sexual orientation. We therefore conclude that, from a comparative advantage perspective, most same-sex and different-sex couples specialize equally.

Daily Marital Strain and Sleep in Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples

Marital strain has consistently been linked to many indicators of daily health and well-being, including sleep. Prior studies show that, on days when marital strain is higher, women in different-sex couples experience poorer sleep outcomes. However, this work has not yet considered whether and how these relationships differ for men and women in same-sex couples. Using 10 days of dyadic diary data from 756 midlife U.S. men and women in 378 gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages, we examine the associations of daily marital strain with sleep quality and duration and consider whether these relationships differ across union type. Results suggest that increased marital strain is associated with poorer sleep quality and shorter sleep duration, but only for women married to men. These findings underscore the importance of including same-sex couples when exploring linkages between marital dynamics and health, especially when considering how gender impacts these processes.

DEALING WITH A DISTRESSED SPOUSE: MARITAL DYNAMICS IN SAME-SEX AND DIFFERENT-SEX COUPLES

We use a mixed-methods strategy to generate insights into gendered marital dynamics when one partner is experiencing high levels of psychological distress/depression. Our data are unique in their dyadic design and in the inclusion of same-sex and well as different-sex marital dyads. The data are from closed- and open-ended survey responses (from 808 gay, lesbian, and heterosexual spouses in 404 unions) as well as in-depth interview data (with a subsample of 45 gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples in 90 unions). Respondents were asked about their most significant period of emotional distress during the marriage, how their spouse reacted to their distress (e.g., providing emotional or instrumental support, withdrawing), and how much they worried about burdening their spouse. Respondents were also asked how they reacted to their spouse’s periods of emotional distress. Preliminary results point to gendered experiences of distress within marriage that sometimes differ for same-sex compared to different-sex couples.

Evaluations of Parenting by Same-Sex vs Different-Sex Couples among Heterosexual University Students: Experimental Between-Subjects Vignette Design Study

Despite the decline in prejudice towards LGBT people, the issue of parenthood is still controversial with negative attitudes towards LGBT parents being openly expressed. This study aimed to examine attitudes towards parenting by same-sex couples using a vignette design. Parenting condition (parent’s negative vs positive reaction), active parent’s gender (mother vs father) and family composition (different-sex vs same-sex couple) were varied to test differences in the evaluations of parenting, child behaviour, family environment, social distance and willingness to grant rights. 392 heterosexual and cisgender students from the University of Zagreb (87% female, 13% male), aged 18 to 37, participated in an online study. After reading one of the eight vignettes, participants evaluated parenting, child behaviour, family environment, social distance and rights of the family described in the vignette. The results showed that parenting and family environment were evaluated as better, and participants were less convinced that the child’s behaviour is the result of parents’ relationship in the positive parenting condition than in the negative. Social distance was lower towards parents in the positive parenting condition than in the negative and – unexpectedly – towards same-sex in comparison to different-sex couples. Participants were more inclined to grant family rights to parents from the positive than to those from the negative parenting condition. Although other results suggested unbiased attitudes towards same-sex couples’ parenting, participants were less inclined to grant same-sex couples family rights in comparison to different-sex couples. The findings reflect an important mechanism underlying the stability of prejudice – a resistance towards generalising attitudes from individual cases to a group. This can be used in efforts to confront prejudice against parenting among LGBT people

The Qualities of Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples in Young Adulthood.

Recognition of sexual minorities in social science research is growing and this study contributes to knowledge on this population by comparing the qualities of same-sex and different-sex relationships among young adults. The findings of studies on this topic cannot be generalized to young adults because they are limited to coresidential unions and based on convenience samples. This study extends prior research by examining multiple relationship qualities among a nationally-representative sample of males and females in "dating" and cohabiting relationships. The authors compare young adults in same-sex and different-sex relationships with respect to relationship quality (commitment, satisfaction, and emotional intimacy) and sexual behavior (sexual frequency and sexual exclusivity). Drawing on the fourth wave of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth), they use multiple regression to compare: male respondents with different-sex partners, male respondents with same-sex partners, female respondents with different-sex partners, and female respondents with same-sex partners. Consistent with previous research, the authors find that respondents in same-sex relationships experience similar levels of commitment, satisfaction, and emotional intimacy as their counterparts in different-sex relationships. They also corroborate the finding that male respondents in same-sex relationships are less likely than other groups of respondents to indicate their relationship is sexually exclusive. This study provides an empirical basis for understanding the relationships of sexual minority young adults.

Marriage, Social Control, and Health Behavior: A Dyadic Analysis of Same-sex and Different-sex Couples.

Prior research based on studies of heterosexual populations suggests that men's health benefits more from marriage than women's, in part because women do more than men to influence the health habits of their spouse. We extend this work by using dyadic survey data from 838 spouses in 419 gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages to consider differences in social control tactics across same-sex and different-sex couples-that is, how spouses monitor and regulate each other's health habits. Results suggest that although gender differences in social control are common, gendered patterns sometimes differ depending on whether one is in a same-sex or different-sex marriage. Results also point to the importance of health habits as strong drivers of relationship dynamics across gay and lesbian as well as heterosexual marriages.

Female same-sex couples act long-term financially rational?

One of the challenges faced by research on the gendered transition to parenthood is how to dismantle the interconnected nature of biology, gender and economic reasoning. We contribute to this aim by comparing division of parental leave in different-sex couples (DSC) and female same-sex couples (SSC). Motherhood identity formation appears to be strong in DSC as well as SSC. Net of this, gender is an important predictor of parental leave in DSC. To some extent, SSC seem to divide the leave in a more long-term financially rational way than DSC do.

Gender Roles, Comparative Advantages and the Life Course: The Division of Domestic Labor in Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples.

Lesbian and gay couples by definition cannot establish sex-specific divisions of domestic tasks, at least not literally. Previous research has shown that high levels of equality characterize domestic work arrangements in same-sex couples. This study scrutinizes explanations for this. The theoretical background stems from family economics, from the theory of relative resources and from gender role and life-course considerations. The empirical analysis is based upon the Generations and Gender Survey from Austria, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Australia. Results show that same-sex partners engage in more tasks equally, that their housework-sharing pattern is less segregated and that the partners' workload is more equally balanced. Comparative advantages, life-course differences and gender roles contribute to the explanation of higher levels of equality in same-sex compared to different-sex relationships.