Differentiation Of Rat Pheochromocytoma PC12 Cells Research Articles

Neuroprotective Effect of Nerve Growth Factor Loaded in Porous Silicon Nanostructures in an Alzheimer's Disease Model and Potential Delivery to the Brain

Nerve growth factor (NGF) plays a vital role in reducing the loss of cholinergic neurons in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, its delivery to the brain remains a challenge. Herein, NGF is loaded into degradable oxidized porous silicon (PSiO2 ) carriers, which are designed to carry and continuously release the protein over a 1 month period. The released NGF exhibits a substantial neuroprotective effect in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells against amyloid-beta (Aβ)-induced cytotoxicity, which is associated with Alzheimer's disease. Next, two potential localized administration routes of the porous carriers into murine brain are investigated: implantation of PSiO2 chips above the dura mater, and biolistic bombardment of PSiO2 microparticles through an opening in the skull using a pneumatic gene gun. The PSiO2 -implanted mice are monitored for a period of 8 weeks and no inflammation or adverse effects are observed. Subsequently, a successful biolistic delivery of these highly porous microparticles into a live-mouse brain is demonstrated for the first time. The bombarded microparticles are observed to penetrate the brain and reach a depth of 150 µm. These results pave the way for using degradable PSiO2 carriers as potential localized delivery systems for NGF to the brain.

Unsupervised Network Analysis of the Plastic Supraoptic Nucleus Transcriptome Predicts Caprin2 Regulatory Interactions.

The supraoptic nucleus (SON) is a group of neurons in the hypothalamus responsible for the synthesis and secretion of the peptide hormones vasopressin and oxytocin. Following physiological cues, such as dehydration, salt-loading and lactation, the SON undergoes a function related plasticity that we have previously described in the rat at the transcriptome level. Using the unsupervised graphical lasso (Glasso) algorithm, we reconstructed a putative network from 500 plastic SON genes in which genes are the nodes and the edges are the inferred interactions. The most active nodal gene identified within the network was Caprin2. Caprin2 encodes an RNA-binding protein that we have previously shown to be vital for the functioning of osmoregulatory neuroendocrine neurons in the SON of the rat hypothalamus. To test the validity of the Glasso network, we either overexpressed or knocked down Caprin2 transcripts in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells and showed that these manipulations had significant opposite effects on the levels of putative target mRNAs. These studies suggest that the predicative power of the Glasso algorithm within an in vivo system is accurate, and identifies biological targets that may be important to the functional plasticity of the SON.

Quantum dots protect against MPP+-induced neurotoxicity in a cell model of Parkinson’s disease through autophagy induction

Autophagy is a basic cellular process that decomposes damaged organelles and aberrant proteins. Dysregulation of autophagy is implicated in pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson’s disease (PD). Pharmacological compounds that stimulate autophagy can provide neuroprotection in models of PD. Nanoparticles have emerged as regulators of autophagy and have been tested in adjuvant therapy for diseases. In this present study, we explore the effects of quantum dots (QDs) that can induce autophagy in a cellular model of Parkinson’s disease. CdTe/CdS/ZnS QDs protect differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells from MPP+-induced cell damage, including reduced viability, apoptosis and accumulation of α-Synuclein, a characteristic protein of PD. The protective function of QDs is autophagy-dependent. In addition, we investigate the interaction between quantum dots and autophagic pathways and identify beclin1 as an essential factor for QDs-induced autophagy. Our results reveal new promise of QDs in the theranostic of neurodegenerative diseases.

Beneficial effect of astragalosides on stroke condition using PC12 cells under oxygen glucose deprivation and reperfusion.

Astragalosides (AST) are reported to be neuroprotective in focal cerebral ischemic models in vivo. In this study, the direct effect of AST against oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) including neuronal injury and the underlying mechanisms in vitro were investigated. 5 h OGD followed by 24 h of reperfusion [adding back oxygen and glucose (OGD-R)] was used to induce in vitro ischemia reperfusion injury in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. AST (1, 100, and 200 µg/mL) were added to the culture after 5 h of the OGD ischemic insult and was present during the reoxygenation phases. A key finding was that OGD-R decreased cell viability, increased lactate dehydrogenase, increased reactive oxygen species, apoptosis, autophagy, functional impairment of mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in PC12 cells, all of which AST treatment significantly reduced. In addition, AST attenuated OGD-R-induced cell loss through P38 MAPK activation a neuroprotective effect blunted by SB203580, a specific inhibitor of P38 MAPK. Our data suggest that both apoptosis and autophagy are important characteristics of OGD-R-induced PC12 death and that treating PC12 cells with AST blocked OGD-R-induced apoptosis and autophagy by suppressing intracellular oxidative stress, functional impairment of mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Our data provide identification of AST that can concomitantly inhibit multiple cells death pathways following OGD injuries in neural cells.

Circulation: Clinical Summaries

<i>Circulation:</i> Clinical Summaries

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Protects PC12 Cells Against the Apoptosis Induced by Oxygen and Glucose Deprivation

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) was reported neuroprotective under several ischemic models in vivo. In this study, the direct effect of HSYA against oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) inducing acute neuronal injury and the underling mechanisms in vitro were investigated. Four-hour oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) followed by 20 h reperfusion (adding back oxygen and glucose, OGD-R) was used to induce in vitro ischemia reperfusion injury in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. HSYA (1, 10, and 100 μmol/l) was added to the cultures 30 min prior to the ischemic insult and was present during OGD and reoxygenation phases. The survival rate of PC12 cells was detected by MTT assay. The contents of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were elevated by biochemical method. Hoechst 33258 staining and flow cytometric analysis were used to detect apoptosis; western blotting was used to detect the expression of Bcl-2, Bax, and Cytochrome C protein. The activity of caspase-3 was assessed by colorimetry. HSYA concentration-dependently attenuated neuronal damage with characteristics of increasing injured neuronal absorbance of MTT, decreasing cell apoptosis, and antagonizing decreases in SOD activity and increase in MDA level induced by OGD-R. Moreover, the down-regulation of Bcl-2, up-regulation of Bax and the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c to cytosol and the consequent activation of caspase-3 were reversed by HSYA in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that apoptosis is an important characteristic of OGD-R-induced PC 12 death and that treatment of PC12 cells with HSYA can block OGD-R-induced apoptosis through suppression of intracellular oxidative stress and mitochondria dependent caspase cascade.

Serotonin Catabolism and the Formation and Fate of 5-Hydroxyindole Thiazolidine Carboxylic Acid

Serotonin (5-HT) functions as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in both the central and enteric nervous systems of mammals. The dynamic degradation of 5-HT metabolites in 5-HT-containing nervous system tissues is monitored by capillary electrophoresis with wavelength-resolved laser-induced native fluorescence detection in an effort to investigate known and novel 5-HT catabolic pathways. Tissue samples from wild type mice, genetically altered mice, Long Evans rats, and cultured differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC-12 cells, are analyzed before and after incubation with excess 5-HT. From these experiments, several new compounds are detected. One metabolite, identified as 5-hydroxyindole thiazoladine carboxylic acid (5-HITCA), has been selected for further study. In 5-HT-incubated central and enteric nervous system tissue samples and differentiated PC-12 cells, 5-HITCA forms at levels equivalent to 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid, via a condensation reaction between L-cysteine and 5-hydroxyindole acetaldehyde. In the enteric nervous system, 5-HITCA is detected without the addition of 5-HT. The levels of L-cysteine and homocysteine in rat brain mitochondria are measured between 80 and 140 microm and 1.9 and 3.4 microm, respectively, demonstrating that 5-HITCA can be formed using available, free L-cysteine in these tissues. The lack of significant accumulation of 5-HITCA in the central and enteric nervous systems, along with data showing the degradation of 5-HITCA into 5-hydroxyindole acetaldehyde, suggests that an equilibrium coupled to the enzyme, aldehyde dehydrogenase type 2, prevents the accumulation of 5-HITCA. Even so, the formation of 5-HITCA represents a catabolic pathway of 5-HT that can affect the levels of 5-HT-derived compounds in the body.

Abstracts of the 8th Meeting of the Italian Peripheral Nerve Study Group: 72

Peripheral neurotoxicity is a severe side effect of several effective antineoplastic drugs. Different attempts have been previously performed in order to reduce the neurotoxicity of antineoplastic compounds, but so far an effective neuroprotective treatment is not available. Acetyl‐l‐carnitine (ALC) is a natural occurring compound with a neuroprotective activity in several experimental paradigms and in clinical use for the treatment of painful neuropathies. In this study we have tested in two rat models the hypothesis that ALC may have a protective role on cisplatin‐ and paclitaxel‐induced neuropathy. Preliminary in vitro and in vivo experiments in different tumor systems indicated the lack of interference of ALC in the antitumor effects of cisplatin and paclitaxel. ALC co‐treatment was able to significantly reduce the neurotoxicity of both cisplatin and paclitaxel in well‐established rat models and this effect was correlated with a modulation of the plasma levels of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the cisplatin model. The protective effect of ALC was confirmed also in in vitro studies on differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, where ALC treatment counteracted the paclitaxel and cisplatin‐induced cell damage, as measured by reduction of neurite elongation. In a search for the mechanism(s) of ALC neuroprotection, the transcriptional profile of gene expression in PC12 cells determined by microarray analysis indicated that ALC, in the presence of NGF, was able to modulate various genes relevant in the tissue‐specific toxicity, such as NGFI‐A. Moreover, we observed that labeled acetyl groups derived from ALC were transferred into histones and that cells co‐treatment with NGF and ALC increased the level of histones H4 acetylation. These findings suggest that up‐regulation of genes implicated in the protection against specific damage induced by neurotoxic agent may be the result of modulation of histone acetylation mediated by transfer of ALC acetyl groups. Overall, these results provide the first evidence that ALC is a neuroprotective agent acting through a novel mechanism that appears to be important for counteracting the chemotherapy‐induced neurotoxicity secondary to cisplatin and paclitaxel treatment.

The Cytotoxicity of Reactive Oxygen Species and Related Agents Toward Undifferentiated and Differentiated Rat Pheochromocytoma PC12 Cells

The Cytotoxicity of Reactive Oxygen Species and Related Agents Toward Undifferentiated and Differentiated Rat Pheochromocytoma PC12 Cells

Extracellular ATP inhibits starvation-induced apoptosis via P2X2 receptors in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells

Apoptosis in neuronal tissue is an efficient mechanism which contributes to both normal cell development and pathological cell death. The present study explored the effects of extracellular ATP on starvation-induced apoptosis in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. Incubation of differentiated PC12 cells with ATP for 6h suppressed apoptosis. 2-Methylthio-ATP, a P2 purinoceptor agonist, was as potent as ATP in suppressing apoptosis, whereas adenosine, ADP, α,βmethylene-ATP or UTP was totally ineffective. The suppressive action of ATP was dependent upon the presence of extracellular Ca 2+ and blocked by co-incubation with the P2 antagonist, suramin. DNA ladder formation, a typical symptom of apoptosis in starved cells, was inhibited by ATP, 2-methylthio-ATP but not by UTP. These results suggest that the inhibitory action of extracellular ATP on apoptotic cell death is mediated via the activation of P2X2 receptors in differentiated PC12 cells.

Effects of a novel antihypertensive drug, cilnidipine, on catecholamine secretion from differentiated PC12 cells.

Effects of a novel dihydropyridine type of antihypertensive drug, cilnidipine, on the regulation of the catecholamine secretion closely linked to the intracellular Ca2+ were examined using nerve growth factor (NGF)-differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. By measuring catecholamine secretion with high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with an electrochemical detector, we showed that high K+ stimulation evoked dopamine release from PC12 cells both before and after NGF treatments. Cilnidipine depressed dopamine release both from NGF-treated and untreated PC12 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. In contrast, inhibition by nifedipine was markedly decreased in the differentiated PC12 cells. With intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) measurements using fura 2, the elevation of high K+-evoked [Ca2+]i was separated into nifedipine-sensitive and -resistant components. The nifedipine-resistant [Ca2+]i increase was also blocked by cilnidipine, as well as omega-conotoxin-GVIA. By the use of the conventional whole-cell patch-clamp technique, the compositions of the high-voltage-activated Ca2+ channel currents in the NGF-treated PC12 cells were divided into types: L-type, N-type, and residual current components. It was also estimated that cilnidipine at 1 and 3 micromol/L strongly blocked the N-type current without affecting the residual current. These results suggest that cilnidipine inhibits catecholamine secretion from differentiated PC12 cells by blocking Ca2+ influx through the N-type Ca2+ channel, in addition to its well-known action on the L-type Ca2+ channel.

Okadaic acid-induced apoptosis in neuronal cells: evidence for an abortive mitotic attempt.

There is increasing evidence that apoptosis in postmitotic neurons is associated with a frustrated attempt to reenter the mitotic cycle. Okadaic acid, a specific protein phosphatase inhibitor, is currently used in models of Alzheimer's research to increase the degree of phosphorylation of various proteins, such as the microtubule-associated protein tau. Okadaic acid induces programmed cell death in the human neuroblastoma cell lines TR14 and NT2-N, as evidenced by fragmentation of DNA and attenuation of this process by protein synthesis inhibitors. In differentiated TR14 cells, okadaic acid increases the fraction of cells in the S phase, induces the appearance of cyclin B1 and cyclin D1 markers of the cell cycle, and triggers a time-dependent increase in DNA fragmentation after release of a thymidine block. Fully differentiated NT2-N cells are forced to enter the mitotic cycle as shown by DNA staining. Chromatin condensation and chromosome formation are initiated, but the cells fail to complete their mitotic cycle. These data suggest that okadaic acid forces differentiated neuronal cells into the mitotic cycle. This pattern of cyclin up-regulation and cell cycle shift is compared with apoptosis induced by neurotrophic factor deprivation in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells.

The perturbed membrane of cells undergoing apoptosis is susceptible to type II secretory phospholipase A 2 to liberate arachidonic acid

Several lines of evidence have suggested that the plasma membranes of cells elicited by proinflammatory stimuli or microvesicles shed from activated cells are sensitive to extracellular type II secretory phospholipase A 2 (sPLA 2) that liberates fatty acids and lysophospholipids. Here we report that the membranes of cells undergoing apoptosis are highly susceptible to type II sPLA 2. When neuronally differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells deprived of nerve growth factor and serum, mouse mast cells deprived of hematopoietic cytokines or human monocytic U937 cells stimulated via Fas antigen (a receptor for the death factor Fas ligand), were exposed to type II sPLA 2 at concentrations comparable to those detected at inflamed sites, the release of arachidonic acid was significantly accelerated in association with the process of programmed cell death. Arachidonic acid release by sPLA 2 was dependent on the extracellular Ca 2+ and was accompanied by preferential hydrolysis of phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine in the membrane phospholipids. Association of sPLA 2 with cell surface proteoglycan, which has been shown to be a prerequisite for endogenous sPLA 2-dependent arachidonic acid release from the plasma membranes of live cells, was not essential for sPLA 2-mediated hydrolysis of apoptotic cell membranes. Taking these results together, the apoptotic cell membrane is a potential target for extracellular type II sPLA 2. The present findings may be relevant to events occurring at inflammatory or ischemic disease sites where apoptotic cells accumulate.

Complement-mediated neurotoxicity is regulated by homologous restriction

The ability of β-amyloid peptides to activate the classical complement cascade and the presence of various complement proteins including the membrane attack complex (C5b-9) on dystrophic neurites in Alzheimer's disease brains, raises the possibility that the complement system may contribute to this neurodegenerative disorder. To address this issue, we have studied the effect of complement activation on nerve growth factor (NGF)-differentiated rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, and on retinoic acid (RA)-differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Although incubation of both cell types with human serum resulted in activation of complement, as indicated by iC3b formation, only PC12 but not SH-SY5Y cells were killed by human serum treatment. In contrast, heat-inactivated serum (56°C, 45 min) was not neurotoxic. On SH-SY5Y cells, both PCR amplification and immunocytochemistry demonstrated the presence of CD59, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein that restricts homologous complement activation by inhibiting the formation of the membrane attack complex. The presence of CD59 probably accounts for the inability of human complement to lyse the human cell lines. Indeed, removal of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins with phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) rendered SH-SY5Y cells vulnerable to complement attack and eventually led to serum-mediated cell death. Reconstituted C5b-9 was also toxic to both PC12 and PI-PLC-pretreated SH-SY5Y cells. These observations suggest that complement activation can cause neuronal cell death and that this process is regulated by homologous restriction.