Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis Research Articles

A longitudinal investigation of caregiving and adolescent post-traumatic stress symptoms during COVID-19: evidence for high resting RSA as a susceptibility factor.

Post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) were the most frequently reported mental health concern for youth during COVID-19, yet variations in youth's PTSS responses warrant empirical consideration. Features of the caregiving environment influence youth's responses to environmental stressors, and youth's parasympathetic nervous system regulation may qualify the magnitude and/or direction of these effects. This prospective investigation evaluated diathesis stress and differential susceptibility models of caregiving and parasympathetic influences on youth's PTSS responses to COVID-19. Participants were 225 caregiver-youth dyads (youth 49.8% female at birth; 88.4% non-white) followed from childhood through adolescence and COVID-19. Youth's resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA; Mage = 6.11, s.d. = 0.21), caregiving features (i.e. attachment security [youth Mage = 12.24, s.d. = 0.35] and caregiver internalizing psychopathology [caregiver Mage = 39.29, s.d. = 6.78]) were assessed pre-pandemic. Youth's PTSS was assessed one year prior to the US COVID-19 pandemic (Mage = 14.24, s.d. = 0.50) and during the spring of 2020 at the height of the pandemic (Mage = 15.23, s.d. = 0.57). Youth's PTSS increased during COVID-19. Youth with relatively high resting RSA evidenced the lowest PTSS when their caregiving environment featured high attachment security or low caregiver internalizing problems, but the highest PTSS when their caregiving environment featured low attachment security or high caregiver internalizing problems. In contrast, PTSS levels of youth with relatively low or average resting RSA did not differ significantly depending on attachment security or caregiver internalizing. Results are consistent with a differential susceptibility hypothesis, wherein relatively high resting RSA conferred heightened sensitivity to caregiving environments in a for-better-and-for-worse manner during COVID-19.

Interpersonal Stress and Late Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Moderation by Perceptual Sensitivity to Facial Expression of Anger.

The interpersonal theories of depression highlight the role of interpersonal stress and individual's sensitivity to social rejection in the development of depression. However, previous research has tested their respective effects, whereas whether or not these two factors interact to affect depression, especially in ways of differential susceptibility or diathesis-stress, remains unknown. By adopting a morphed facial expressions recognition paradigm, the current study investigated the potential moderating role of perceptual sensitivity to facial expressions, especially that to angry expression which signaled social rejection, in the association between interpersonal stress and adolescent depressive symptoms. A total of 186 Chinese late adolescents (Mage = 21.16 ± 1.81 years; 73.7% females) participated in this study. The results demonstrated that perceptual sensitivity for angry faces, but not sad or happy faces, functioned as a plasticity factor significantly moderating the effect of interpersonal stress on depressive symptoms, which was consistent with hypothesis of differential susceptibility rather than diathesis-stress. No interactions were observed regarding non-interpersonal dimensions. These results were robust and survived a series of sensitivity analyses, including k-fold cross-validation test. The current findings highlight the crucial role of perceptual sensitivity to angry expression in explaining individual differences behind the links between interpersonal stress and adolescent depressive symptoms.

A contextual approach to the characteristics of a preschooler’s temperament: The role of the educational environment

According to numerous past and contemporary studies, biological factors (such as matura- tion of the nervous system) and a number of environmental factors influence the develop- ment of temperament. It has been demonstrated that, among other environmental factors that influence the manifestation of temperamental characteristics, the relationships be- tween parents and children can be viewed as an indicator of the social environment. When a child transitions from the family environment to the educational environment, the quality of which is a significant element in the continued development of preschoolers, the child’s temperament characteristics begin to play an increasingly essential role in the process of socialization. In this regard, it is important to investigate whether there is a correlation between the characteristics of temperament and the structural and procedural aspects of the educational environment. According to previous studies, the characteristics of the edu- cational milieu are related to the temperamental characteristics of a child. More research has been conducted on the relationship between a child’s temperament and the procedural characteristics of the environment, i. e. the interactions and relationships between the child and the teacher. One of the principal conclusions is that this relationship is reciprocal: the teacher’s attitude toward the child influences the manifestation of temperamental traits, and the child’s temperament influences the quality of the relationship. The structure of the educational environment is also related to a child’s temperament; however, data on this re- lationship have been collected for a very long time and are extremely limited, necessitating further empirical research to validate the results obtained. This paper examines the rela- tionship between temperament and the parameters of the educational environment, taking into consideration its interactivity (M.Rothbart), the goodness of fit (A.Thomas, S.Chess), the niche picking (S. Scarr, C.McCarthy), the differential susceptibility hypothesis (B. Ellis), and sensitive periods of the development of temperament properties. The possibilities of considering children’s temperament into the implementation of educational programs in preschool institutions are discussed.

Emerging adults' digital technology engagement and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Within the past decade, parents, scientists, and policy makers have sought to understand how digital technology engagement may exacerbate or ameliorate young people's mental health symptoms, a concern that has intensified amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Previous research has been far from conclusive, and a lack of research consensus may stem in part from widely varying measurement strategies (including subjective and objective measurement) around digital technology engagement. In a cross-sectional study of 323 university students, the present study seeks to understand the ways in which youth engagement with digital technology - across subjective and objective measurements, weekday and weekend distinctions, and social and non-social uses - is associated with mental health (as measured by depression, loneliness, and multidimensional mood and anxiety). The present study also tested a differential susceptibility hypothesis to examine whether COVID-19 related social isolation might exacerbate the potential harms or helps of digital technology engagement. Results yielded few observed associations between digital technology engagement and mental health, with little evidence of detrimental effects of observed or perceived time spent on digital technology. Rather, those significant findings which did emerge underscore potential protections conferred by social connections with friends (both online and offline), and that the loneliest students may be the most likely to be reaching out for these types of connections. It is important that the field move beyond crude (largely self-reported) measures of screen time to instead understand how and to what effect youth are using digital technologies, especially during the social corridor of emerging adulthood.

Replicating a randomized trial with video-feedback to promote positive parenting in parents of school-aged twins.

In this randomized controlled trial, we investigated the effectiveness of the brief, home-based Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) in parents of 257 school-aged twin pairs (N = 514 children, Mage = 7.92, SD = 0.66), replicating a previous study testing the effectiveness of the intervention in parents with preschool-aged twins (Euser et al., 2021). We conducted two pretests (1 year apart) and one posttest 1 month after the intervention. An age-adequate twin-adapted version of the VIPP-SD was used in primary caregivers (91% female). We examined the main effect of the intervention on observed parental sensitivity and sensitive discipline and on attitudes toward sensitivity and sensitive discipline. We also investigated whether parents who are more susceptible to the environment, as measured by their self- and partner-reported current temperamental reactivity, benefitted more from the intervention. In our sample with older children, the VIPP-SD did not significantly change observed parental sensitivity or sensitive discipline in the intervention group compared to the control group. The VIPP-SD did improve parents' attitude toward sensitivity, but not toward discipline. Intervention effects were not moderated by temperamental reactivity of the parents, providing no support for the differential susceptibility hypothesis. Future research might examine the differential susceptibility hypothesis in parents using stress-reactivity or genetic susceptibility markers instead of self-reported reactive temperament. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Youth Temperament Moderates Associations Between Parental Involvement and Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes Treatment Outcome.

Both youth self-regulation and quality of parental involvement have been associated with blood glucose levels (HbA1c) of youth with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). However, it is unclear whether and how youth and parental factors interact in their relation to youth HbA1c. The differential susceptibility hypothesis proposes that youth with high negative affectivity (NA) and low effortful control (EC) may be more susceptible to the deleterious impact of lower quality parenting behaviors but also reap greater benefit from higher quality parenting behaviors. This study investigated whether youth temperament would moderate the link between diabetes-specific parental assistance (e.g., checking blood sugar) or support (e.g., encouraging, praising) and HbA1c among youth with T1DM. Primary caregivers of youth with T1DM (N = 101; M age = 12.02, SD = 2.43) completed surveys on diabetes-specific parental involvement and youth temperament. Medical information (i.e., HbA1c) was obtained from chart review. Multiple regression analyses indicated that youth NA and EC significantly interacted with parental assistance, but not support. Specifically, higher parental assistance was associated with higher HbA1c among youth with high NA or high EC. High assistance was only linked to lower HbA1c for youth with low NA. Results suggest that optimal levels of parental involvement related to better T1DM outcomes depend on youth's NA or EC. Consistent with the goodness-of-fit framework, when parenting approaches match youth's temperament, youth with T1DM may be better able to maintain lower HbA1c. Family interventions for pediatric T1DM management may take into consideration youth temperament.

A brief video-coaching intervention buffers young children's vulnerability to the impact of caregivers’ depressive symptoms: Examination of differential susceptibility

AbstractInformed by the National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) and developmental psychopathology frameworks, the current study used cortisol area under the curve with respect to ground (AUCg) as an index of differential sensitivity to context, which was expected to predispose young children with elevated vulnerability to adverse caregiving experiences and adaptive sensitivity to intervention effects. Particularly, the study aimed to determine whether improving caregivers’ responsive parenting through the Filming Interactions to Nurture Development (FIND) intervention would buffer children's biologically embedded vulnerability to caregivers’ depressive symptoms. Data were derived from a randomized controlled trial using pretest–posttest design with low-income families of children aged 4 to 36 months (N = 91). Young children's differential sensitivity was measured using cortisol AUCg during a structured stress paradigm. As hypothesized, children whose cortisol AUCg indicated greater sensitivity to social context exhibited more internalizing and externalizing behaviors in relation to caregivers’ elevated depressive symptoms. Critically, the intervention program was effective in attenuating psychopathology symptoms among the more biologically sensitive children. As proven by rigorous statistical tests, the findings of this study partially supported the differential susceptibility hypotheses, indicating both greater vulnerability to adverse conditions and responsiveness to intervention among children with high levels of cortisol AUCg.

Associations between Turkish incarcerated mothers’ sensitivity and their co-residing children’s attachment: The moderating role of children’s temperament

ABSTRACT This study investigated the associations between incarcerated mothers’ sensitivity and their co-residing children’s attachment security. Furthermore, the moderating role of children’s temperament on the associations between maternal sensitivity and children’s attachment security was examined. The study sample consisted of 84 incarcerated mothers (Mage = 29.9, SD = 5.6) and their 12- to 43-month-old (M = 25.3, SD = 8.3) children who co-resided with them in prison facilities. Maternal sensitivity and child’s attachment were assessed by observation of mother-child interaction using the Maternal Sensitivity Scale and the Turkish Toddler Attachment Sort-60, respectively. Mothers reported their children’s temperamental features (i.e. negative emotionality and effortful control) using the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. Results showed that maternal sensitivity was related positively to children’s secure attachment and negatively to children’s disorganized attachment. Furthermore, children’s negative emotionality and effortful control moderated the associations between maternal sensitivity and children’s attachment. Specifically, maternal sensitivity negatively predicted children’s avoidant attachment only for children with low negative emotionality and with high effortful control. Additionally, maternal sensitivity negatively predicted children’s anxious attachment only for children with low effortful control. Results are discussed in terms of sample-specific experiences, contextual factors, and the differential susceptibility hypothesis.

Monoaminergic Multilocus Genetic Variants Interact with Stressful Life Events in Predicting Changes in Adolescent Anxiety Symptoms: A One-year Longitudinal Study

Research suggests that genetic variants linked to monoaminergic neurotransmitter function moderate the association between stress and anxiety symptoms, but examining gene-environment (G × E) interactions with individual genes limits power. As one of polygenetic approaches, the multilocus genetic profile score is derived theoretically from combining the effects of multiple candidate genes based on the "biological plausibility". Using this approach, the current study examined the interaction between monoaminergic multilocus genetic variants and stressful life events on the changes in adolescent anxiety symptoms across a one-year timespan. In a Chinese Han adolescent sample which was derived from three vocational high schools (N = 587; T1: Mage = 16.47 ± 1.53 years; 50.8%, girls), the monoaminergic multilocus genetic profile score was calculated using 5-HTR2C rs6318, TPH2 rs4570625 and DRD2 rs1800497 polymorphisms. Results showed that this monoaminergic multilocus genetic profile score interacted with stressful life events in predicting changes in anxiety symptoms. Consistent with the G×E hypothesis of differential susceptibility, adolescents with more monoaminergic plasticity alleles not only suffered more from high levels of stressful life events, which increased the risk for anxiety symptoms, but also benefited more from low levels of stressful life events, which decreased the risk for anxiety symptoms. There were no significant G × E interactions when individual polymorphisms were examined in isolation. The results highlight the importance of examining aggregated influences of multiple genes in G × E interactions underlying the longitudinal development of adolescent anxiety symptoms.

Genetic differential susceptibility to the parent-child relationship quality and the life span development of compassion.

The development of compassion for others might be influenced by the social experiences made during childhood and has a genetic component. No research has yet investigated whether the parent-child relationship quality interacts with genetic variation in the oxytocin and dopamine systems in predicting compassion over the life span. In the prospective Young Finns Study (N = 2099, 43.9% men), we examined the interaction between mother-reported emotional warmth and intolerance toward their child assessed in 1980 (age of participants, 3-18 years) and two established genetic risk scores for oxytocin levels and dopamine signaling activity. Dispositional compassion for others was measured with the Temperament and Character Inventory 1997, 2001, and 2012 (age of participants, 20-50 years). We found a gene-environment interaction (p = .031) that remained marginally significant after adjustment for multiple testing. In line with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, only participants who carry alleles associated with low dopamine signaling activity had higher levels of compassion when growing up with emotionally warm parents, whereas they had lower levels of compassion when their parents were emotionally cold. Children's genetic variability in the dopamine system might result in plasticity to early environmental influences that have a long-lasting effect on the development of compassion. However, our findings need replication.

Breastfeeding moderates the relationship between fat mass and obesity-associated gene rs9939609 and body mass index among adolescents.

ObjectiveBreastfeeding, which is important for early growth, is a possible moderator of genetic influence, such as the effect of the fat mass and obesity‐associated gene (FTO) on body mass index (BMI). The aim of this study was to assess the moderating effect of breastfeeding duration on the relationship between FTO rs9939609 and BMI in a Caucasian sample.MethodsAdolescents born in 1997 and in 1999, who were living in the Swedish county Västmanland in 2012, were invited to participate in the Survey of Adolescent Life in Västmanland. The adolescents and their parents completed self‐reported questionnaires in 2012, 2015, and 2018. Genotyping of rs9939609 T > A polymorphism was conducted from saliva DNA samples. Interaction effects of parental reported breastfeeding duration in months, including regions of significance, on the relationship between rs9939609 and BMI plus overweight were assessed.ResultsConsidering physical activity levels, parental reported breastfeeding duration was a moderator of the relationship between rs9939609 and BMI for the younger (regions of significance = <1.6 and >28.1 months) and older adolescents (region of significance = >19.9 months), but not for the young adults. Plots of the association between breastfeeding duration and BMI showed higher BMI for AA with short breastfeeding, but lower BMI with longer breastfeeding than AT and TT. Longer breastfeeding lowered the odds for overweight among the younger adolescents, especially among AA individuals.ConclusionRs9939609 AA individuals were more susceptible than AT and TT individuals to both short and long breastfeeding durations, which is consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis. FTO rs9939609 AA might be a plasticity variant with differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Breastfeeding duration may be one of many factors that affect the relationship between rs9939609 and BMI.

The etiology of maternal postpartum depressive symptoms: Childhood emotional maltreatment, couple relationship satisfaction, and genes.

There is a call for integrative studies examining the roles of biological and psychosocial factors and their interrelations in shaping maternal postpartum psychopathology. Using longitudinal data from 198 primiparous mothers, we tested a biopsychosocial model for the etiology of maternal postpartum depressive symptoms that integrated childhood emotional maltreatment, couple relationship satisfaction, and oxytocin and dopamine D4 receptor genes (i.e., OXTR rs53576 and DRD4). Results indicate (a) two indirect effects from childhood emotional maltreatment and DRD4 to depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum through couple relationship satisfaction at 6 months postpartum; (b) an interactive effect between DRD4 and couple relationship satisfaction at 6 months postpartum in predicting depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum, which is in concert with the differential susceptibility hypotheses; and (c) no mediating effects or moderating effects (after adjusting for multiple testing with Bonferroni correction) involving OXTR rs53576. Notably, all associations were identified after controlling for several key covariates (e.g., maternal prenatal depressive symptoms). Last, robustness of the currently identified interactive effect involving DRD4 was demonstrated by an extensive set of additional analyses considering the effects of rGE, G × Covariates, and/or E × Covariates. Taken altogether, this study represents one of the initial efforts for a more sophisticated portrayal of how nature and nurture forces may work in conjunction with each other to shape new mothers' psychopathology. Yet given the current modest sample size and candidate gene approach, our findings are preliminary, should be cautiously interpreted, and need to be replicated with more rigorous designs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Temperament, socioeconomic adversity, and perinatal risk as related to preschoolers' BMI.

Disparities in childhood obesity necessitate identification of risk-protective and risk- augmenting factors for young children experiencing socioeconomic adversity born with perinatal risk. Temperamental reactivity is a biological marker of susceptibility to environmental characteristics. This study tested whether temperamental reactivity moderated the relation between socioeconomic risk and children's body mass index (BMI). This study examined 100 Head Start preschoolers (Mage = 4.07 years, SD = 0.56) with perinatal risk, defined as preterm birth (PT, <37 weeks gestation) or low birth weight (LBW, <2500g). Anthropometric measurements were collected from children and parents. Parents completed questionnaires on family level demographics and household food insecurity to create a cumulative socioeconomic risk variable. Parents also completed the Children's Behavior Questionnaire to assess preschoolers' temperamental reactivity. Results supported a differential susceptibility hypothesis such that preschoolers' temperamental reactivity significantly moderated the relation between socioeconomic risk and child BMI z-score (BMIz). Higher BMIz was observed in highly reactive children exposed to higher socioeconomic risk. Alternatively, lower exposure to socioeconomic risk was related to lower BMIz for highly reactive children. Findings suggest that highly reactive PT/LBW preschoolers are differentially susceptible to early socioeconomic adversity in a for better or for worse manner regarding BMIz. Thus, consideration of temperament as a marker of biological sensitivity to context may be necessary to inform obesity prevention for PT/LBW preschoolers from low-income families. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Interactive Effects of Apolipoprotein E ε4 and Triiodothyronine on Memory Performance in Patients With Subjective Cognitive Decline.

Background: The aim of the present study was to investigate the associations between thyroid hormones, cognitive performance, and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype in euthyroid patients with subjective cognitive decline (SCD).Methods: We recruited 197 euthyroid patients that fulfilled the criteria for SCD. All participants were classified into APOE ε4 carriers and non-carriers based on the presence of the APOE ε4 allele. Patients with SCD who had the APOE ε2/ε4 genotype were excluded from the study. We then performed correlation and regression analyses to evaluate the associations between cognitive performance and thyroid hormones in APOE ε4 carriers and non-carriers.Results: We found no significant differences in cognitive function between APOE ε4 carriers and non-carriers. However, higher levels of triiodothyronine (T3) were associated with better verbal memory performance (immediate and delayed recall tasks) in APOE ε4 carriers, whereas a negative association was found in APOE ε4 non-carriers. Furthermore, there was a significant interactive effect of APOE ε4 status and T3 levels on verbal memory performance (immediate and delayed recall tasks).Conclusions: These findings suggest that in patients with SCD, T3 might have a protective effect on memory in those who are APOE ε4 carriers. The differential susceptibility hypothesis would thus support a gene-by-hormone crossover interaction between APOE ε4 allele and T3 in this study. Early identification and intervention of high-risk individuals for cognitive decline is important to establish new strategies for preventing dementia.

Maternal care of heterozygous dopamine receptor D4 knockout mice: Differential susceptibility to early-life rearing conditions.

The differential susceptibility hypothesis proposes that individuals who are more susceptible to the negative effects of adverse rearing conditions may also benefit more from enriched environments. Evidence derived from human experiments suggests the lower efficacy dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) 7‐repeat as a main factor in exhibiting these for better and for worse characteristics. However, human studies lack the genetic and environmental control offered by animal experiments, complicating assessment of causal relations. To study differential susceptibility in an animal model, we exposed Drd4 +/− mice and control litter mates to a limited nesting/bedding (LN), standard nesting (SN) or communal nesting (CN) rearing environment from postnatal day (P) 2‐14. Puberty onset was examined from P24 to P36 and adult females were assessed on maternal care towards their own offspring. In both males and females, LN reared mice showed a delay in puberty onset that was partly mediated by a reduction in body weight at weaning, irrespective of Drd4 genotype. During adulthood, LN reared females exhibited characteristics of poor maternal care, whereas dams reared in CN environments showed lower rates of unpredictability towards their own offspring. Differential susceptibility was observed only for licking/grooming levels of female offspring towards their litter; LN reared Drd4 +/− mice exhibited the lowest and CN reared Drd4 +/− mice the highest levels of licking/grooming. These results indicate that both genetic and early‐environmental factors play an important role in shaping maternal care of the offspring for better and for worse.

Does 5-HTTLPR moderate the effect of the quality of environmental context on maternal sensitivity? Testing the differential susceptibility hypothesis.

Evidence documenting associations between 5-HTTLPR and parenting behavior led to testing the hypothesis that this polymorphism moderates the effect of the quality of environmental context on maternal sensitivity. Participants were 210 Portuguese mothers and their preschool children, recruited from the community. An index reflecting the quality of the environmental context was derived based on nine markers (e.g. single parenthood; parental education, economic difficulties, family conflict, maternal psychopathology). Maternal sensitivity was measured observationally. Maternal saliva was collected with OraGene kits for genetic analysis. Results revealed a gene-X-environment interaction, such that short-allele homozygotes proved more sensitive to the family context than long-allele carriers (i.e. sL/LL), displaying the highest and lowest levels of maternal sensitivity, depending on, respectively, low and high quality levels of the environmental context. Because even mothers carrying the long allele evinced similar responsiveness to the environmental context, but to a lesser extent, findings proved consistent with the weak differential susceptibility model of person-X-context interaction. Results are discussed in light of prior and related gene-X-environment findings.

Development after High School Transition follows Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis

Development after High School Transition follows Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis

Does Negative Emotional Reactivity Moderate the Relation between Contextual Cohesion and Adolescent Well-Being?

Although well-being is a chief indicator of positive mental health, much research has neglected to consider individual-specific and contextual factors that may promote this important outcome among youth. To address this gap, we examined whether neighborhood and family social cohesion are associated with well-being among youth varying in negative emotional reactivity, and whether findings were consistent with the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility hypothesis. Participants were assessed at 3 time points: Time 1 (N = 775, M age = 10.95 ± 0.88 years; 71% male); Time 2 (n = 660, M age = 12.99 ± 0.95 years); and Time 3 (n = 633, M age = 15.50 ± 0.56 years). At Time 1, caregivers reported on family and neighborhood cohesion. Youth reported on their negative emotional reactivity at Time 2 and well-being at Time 3. Negative emotional reactivity moderated the relation between family cohesion and well-being. Among youth higher in negative emotional reactivity, lower family cohesion was associated with lower levels of well-being compared to higher family cohesion. Youth higher and lower in emotional reactivity evidenced similar levels of well-being when exposed to higher family cohesion. The findings thus support the diathesis-stress model, suggesting that less cohesive families may contribute to reduced happiness and well-being, particularly among youth with higher negative emotional reactivity.

Relations among Temperament, Familial Socioeconomic Status, and Inhibitory Control in Typically Developing Four-Year-Old Children

Since inhibitory control has been implicated in children’s ability to successfully navigate their social and academic environments, it is important to explore factors underlying its development. We examined whether attentional focusing (a temperamental factor) and socioeconomic status (a caregiving environmental factor) influenced children’s inhibitory control. Inhibitory control was coded from an observed behavioral task (Dinky Toys) and children’s temperament and socioeconomic status were indexed via parent report in 70 (36 girls; M age = 4.40 years) typically developing 4-year-old children. We found that children low in attentional focusing were differentially sensitive to their caregiving environment in predicting inhibitory control (p= .001): children with low attentional focusing displayed the highest and lowest levels of inhibitory control when their familial socioeconomic status was high and low, respectively. Children with high attentional focusing exhibited an average amount of inhibitory control regardless of their familial socioeconomic status (p= .20). Findings provide support for a differential susceptibility hypothesis and suggest that plasticity in low attentional focusing may be beneficial to children in some caregiving environments. Findings also highlight the importance of considering factors internal and external to the child when exploring influences on inhibitory control.

Media violence exposure and aggression in adolescents: A risk and resilience perspective.

Media violence exposure (MVE) is associated with aggressive outcomes in adolescents. However, based on the differential susceptibility hypothesis, this risk is expected to vary based on the individual's unique risk and protective factors. Using survey data from 1,990 adolescents (Mean age = 15.6 ± 1.10 years; 48% female) and content analysis of U.S. top-grossing films and popular TV shows, we evaluated the effect of MVE in relation to both risk (i.e., family conflict, impulsivity, sensation seeking) and protective factors (i.e., parental monitoring, parental involvement, parental mediation). Relative weights analyses revealed that MVE was one of the strongest predictors of aggression, after impulsivity and family conflict. The cumulative risk score showed a linear and quadratic relation with the likelihood of aggression, with MVE and family conflict having an interactive relation in predicting aggression. Parental monitoring remained a significant protective factor even when all risk factors were accounted for. Targeted preventive interventions that reduce family conflict, promote parental monitoring, and reduce exposure to violent media may be effective in reducing aggressive tendencies and related negative outcomes.