Different Types Of Migration Research Articles

Göç Olgusunun Göçmen Bireyler Üzerindeki Ruh Sağlığına Etkisi

Migration is a complex structure that has existed throughout human history of individuals and units. There are different types of migration. Internal migration means displacement within the borders of the country. Emigration means leaving the regions they belong to for certain reasons. Brain drain, on the other hand, occurs when people who have developed their own personality are academically educated elsewhere due to the country's conditions. As a result of this move, immigrant individuals are affected by spiritual and emotional changes. The psychological effects of immigration on immigrants are known. Immigrant individuals may experience difficulties in three different categories: before migration, during migration and after migration. As a result of research on common pathologies seen in immigrants, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, self-alienation, schizophrenia, somatization disorder, and increased psychotic features have been expressed. It is known that the life disruption of immigrants has also been reduced. There are definitions of these immigrant types, as well as the psychological transitions of immigrant individuals and the common problem seen in immigrants. Literature research is included in their content. It can be stated that the results of the research showing that migration disrupts the daily life of the students and that psychological problems arise in their lives in a negative way can be expressed. Keywords: Types of migration, migrants, psychology, mental health, trauma.

Research on the impact of digital inclusive finance on the performance of rural returnee entrepreneurs in China

Using data from the 2019 China Household Finance Survey (CHFS), this paper explores the impact of digital inclusive finance on the entrepreneurial performance of returning rural migrants. The study first finds that digital inclusive finance can enhance the entrepreneurial performance of returning rural migrants. Second, it significantly improves entrepreneurial performance in three dimensions: the degree of digitization in inclusive finance, the depth of digital financial usage, and the breadth of digital financial coverage. Third, farmers’ digital participation, digital usage, and the extent of digital usage are crucial pathways through which digital inclusive finance influences their entrepreneurial performance. Fourth, the impact of digital inclusive finance on entrepreneurial performance varies according to different types of migration, duration of migration, scale of entrepreneurship, educational attainment, and credit access channels. The findings of this study help validate the real effects of digital inclusive finance on entrepreneurial outcomes in rural populations.

Lexical pragmatic indicators of conflictogenicity in the light of the manifestation of national communication style (based on Mexican and US mass media)

The lexical pragmatic indicators of conflictogenicity peculiar to Mexican and US media discourse were selected by means of a continuous sampling method from the articles published in 2021-2024 in American (CNN, The Fox News, The New York Times, The New York Post, Los Angeles Times - 100 articles) and Mexican (La Jornada, La Opinion, Excélsior, El Universal, El Milenio - 100 articles) online newspapers. All the analyzed articles are devoted to the migration crisis, which is a common problem of these countries. For the first time, the correlation between the conflict potential index of the text, the density of linguoconflictogens used and the peculiarities of the linguoculture of the ethnic group was established. According to the results, Mexican mass media is characterized by a significantly lower conflict potential index of the text compared to US publications: the density of the lexical pragmatic indicators of the conflict potential is not only lower but in fact lexical units with strong negative semantics are rarely used. The authors of Mexican online publications avoid using such stylistic means of "situation pumping" as hyperbolisation which is so common for US mass media. Metaphors are practically not used in Mexican press either. It is important to note that while the American media discourse is dominated by the extremely negative image of migrants as criminals and terrorists, the Mexican media presents two different types of migrants: the rich arrogant white-skinned trouble-provoking alien and the Latino brother who needs help and protection. The study's perspectives include a comparison of the conflict potential index of user-generated content in these countries and the compilation of a typology of the lexical pragmatic indicators of the conflict potential used.

Victims or Attackers? Deconstructing the Mediatic Image of Migrants at the Romanian-Serbian-Hungarian Border with the Use of Multidimensional Instruments

This study innovates the way in which digital ethnography techniques can be applied in the analysis of complex phenomena, in this case the wave of migrants and refugees at the border between Romania, Serbia, Hungary and Ukraine, in the last two years (2021 - 2022). Thus, we regard this paper as an example of multidimensional education for both students and practitioners of media studies that struggle to address broad, transdisciplinary topics. The present research aims to present a multidimensional approach of the manner in which journalistic materials portray people who have arrived at the border between the three states in their attempt to travel further to the countries of Western Europe. Our methods consist of non-participatory content analysis on some communication products in the mass media from Great Britain and Romania, sentiment analysis and critique of professional practice. We used digital ethnography to reveal interesting data for a comparative analysis of the way different types of migrants are portrayed in British and Romanian media. The comparative analysis was conducted by using data provided by Dchipher Analytics and ZeList Monitor, ensuring a high degree of confidence in the results.

Tales of Migration in Medieval Hungary

Abstract Medieval Hungary has been called a “guestland” because of the multiplicity of immigrant peoples living in the realm. Yet the real experiences of immigrants and narrative constructions about immigration were not always in sync. This article explores medieval tales of different types of migration into the Kingdom of Hungary: first, the mythic migration of the entire people (gens) from a supposed original homeland to a new territory; second, the family histories of noble immigrants; and finally representations of mass immigration into the Christian kingdom. To understand how medieval authors constructed such tales, we need to identify the models they used and the purposes such stories served. Biblical and literary sources inspired the story of “the Hungarians,” while noble families sought to increase their prestige by identifying early immigrant ancestors. In neither case can these medieval narratives be used as historical sources without fully engaging with their genesis. The analysis of explicit medieval reflections on the arrival of various groups into the Kingdom of Hungary also reveals how immigration could be seen in both positive and negative ways. Resting on these medieval foundations, tales of migration have persisted into the present, but they have also gained a sharper distinction: old migration is valorized, while new migration is demonized and instrumentalized in a brutally exclusionary way.

Using Walking Interviews in Migration Research: A Systematic Review of the Qualitative Research Literature

In the field of migration research, the frequency of employing qualitative walking interviews has risen in recent years to delve into the construction, evolution, and negotiation mechanisms of migrant identities within everyday spatial practices. This novel mobile method emphasizes the interaction between micro-experience and macro-structure. It facilitates a shift away from viewing migrants as passive outsiders, empowering them with increased agency, and allow researchers to gain deeper insights into migrants’ emotional dynamics, life experiences, and self-identification within new social landscapes and power configurations. This systematic review aims to evaluate, integrate, and analyse the current empirical evidence in qualitative migration research using walking/go-along interviews for different types of migrants (defined as an individual who moves away from his or her place of usual residence, whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for a variety of reasons). This review brings together for the first time the knowledge and insights from migration research that involves walking interviews. This review employs framework synthesis to analyse the 24 included articles, identifying five major themes: (1) synergising diverse research methods within different research designs; (2) adjustment of power dynamics; (3) migrants’ place-based threefold agency; (4) migrants' identity construction; (5) place-based sense of belonging or exclusion. By integrating these themes, the methodological contribution of this review lies in recognizing the advantages of combining walking interviews with other research methods, which lies in capturing the multidimensional aspects of mobility, allowing researchers to flexibly switch between methodological strategies and spatial scales. Additionally, this paper recommends a deeper exploration of migratory experiences to transcend prevailing practical knowledge and pay sensitive attention to potential ethical issues throughout the research. Such investigation has the potential to uncover the dynamic evolution of agency, identity construction, and the fluctuating sense of belonging among various migrants throughout their journey.

Permanent or temporary homes?

Abstract Questions surrounding mobility and migration are often connected to matters of language, citizenship, socio-economic status and class that are inherently unequal between developed and less-developed nation states. Scholars of geography and demographics have conceptualized both internal and external/international migration with “push” and “pull” factors as salient reasons for mobility. Traditional causes of external migration and so-called “push factors” include conflict, natural disaster, economic collapse, war, and transformations of socio-political systems as well as more promising employment options and decent incomes as contributing factors to external migration (Gonçalves & Schluter, 2020, p. 3). Such “forced moves” affect largely disadvantaged populations that are at risk (i.e. asylum seekers, refugees, victims of human trafficking) (Castles, 2003). For individuals engaging in lifestyle migration and lifestyle mobilities and considered voluntary migration, their life circumstances are extremely different in that they are often equipped with “privileged preconditions” (Mancinelli, 2020, p. 419) as “nomads from affluence” (Cohen, 1973) including for the most part, education, specialized skills, high standards of living and favorable visa regimes of their home countries (primarily in the West). These factors facilitate a range of choices in terms of where they travel to (i.e. place), also known as network capital, the kind of work they engage in and the rate of their mobility. Based on years of ethnographic work, in this paper, we investigate the different dimensions and discourses of lifestyle migration and lifestyle mobilities, both of which we argue presents a new trajectory and venue to explore within the field of migration linguistics (Borlongan, 2023). By focusing on two different case studies within Norway, we also draw on the notion of mediational repertoires (Lexander & Androutsopolous, 2021) as part of the communicative ecology in which jobs are found and where communication takes place among different types of migrants and their new permanent or temporary homes.

Poverty, Wars, and Migrations: The Jonovski Family from the Village of Orovo

This article will cover the different types of migration in Macedonia and its Prespa region at the end of the 19th and 20th centuries through the Jonovski family from the village of Orovo. Poverty and wars caused many men to look for work and to earn money in distant places. Joshe, who was born around 1766, was first an economic migrant with his father, Marko, internally within the Ottoman Empire in Asia Minor (1880–1890). Later, he immigrated to the USA (1914–1918), before returning home to his family. However, after WWI, with the harsh attitude of the Greek government toward the Macedonian minority, this turned into permanent migration. His sons would be migrant workers in the USA, France, and Australia, while their wives and children stayed in Orovo. The village was destroyed and depopulated at the end of the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). Joshe and the remaining family reunited in Wroclaw, Poland, where in the 1950s Joshe died, and his daughters-in-law finally joined their husbands in the USA and Australia. His son Boris, with his family, moved to Skopje, Macedonia, Yugoslavia in 1968. We will look at the life and migrations of Joshe, his four children, and four grandchildren.

‘Migratising’ mobility: Coloniality of knowledge and externally funded migration capacity building projects in Niger

This article explores coloniality of knowledge reproduced through EU funded Migration Capacity Building Programmes (MCBPs) in Niger, considering the period between 2015 and 2021. MCBPs are donor funded programmes aim to introduce EU-driven migration concerns and understandings into domestic policymaking, primarily in non-EU states. The article identifies two ways that MCBPs reproduce specific understandings of mobility as migration: firstly, by reproducing an understanding of mobility along the state/population/territory nexus and secondly, by categorising different types of migration and corresponding policy responses. It argues that the knowledge reproduced through MCBPs is historically embedded in colonial attempts at mobility governance and fails to take account of the pluriversal understandings of mobility in Niger. The article argues that historically and contemporarily, mobility governance in Niger is shaped by ‘negotiated misalignment’, which refers to the mismatch between MCBPs and pre- and co-existing knowledge systems on mobility in a context of strategic actor interaction. Finally, the article analyses the ‘gaze’ of MCBPs in its mutually constitutive material and discursive formation. Drawing on Fanon, it shows that MCBPs reproduce logics of colonial subject formation.

A spatio-temporal approach to population diversity: Immigration and rural areas in France

This article provides a spatio-temporal analysis of population diversity in French rural areas between 1975 and 2015 by considering the weight of the immigrant population and the variety of countries of birth of this population. It is based on a quantitative and longitudinal analysis of detailed data from the 1975, 1999, 2008 and 2015 population censuses. The originality of this article lies in a global approach to the different types of migration and the analysis of the trajectories of local territories over time. With this approach, the article shows that diversification trajectories have been dominant in the French countryside for the past forty years, but also that they have varied in pace and intensity according to the economic and demographic characteristics of the territories and their migration history. Taking into account these temporalities of social change is therefore essential to inform local public action on social integration.

Trends and influencing factors of HIV health education receive rate among 0.57 million migrants in China from 2009 to 2017: a national population-based study

IntroductionChina has implemented Basic Public Health Service (BPHS) in 2009, aiming to improve the health status of the people, and the content of service includes implying health education for residents. As an important group of people, the migrants can easily become main reason for major infectious diseases such as HIV between different provinces, but the effect of receiving health education is still unknown for migrants. Therefore, the health education of China’s migrant population has received widespread attention.MethodsThis study used the data of the China Migrants Dynamic Survey (CMDS) from 2009 to 2017, and evaluated the trend of HIV health education acceptance rate of different migrant groups across the country (n = 570,614). Logistic regression model was used to test the influencing factors of HIV health education rate. Results: The study found that the overall HIV health education rate of Chinese migrants decreased from 2009 to 2017, and different types of migrants showed different trends. The proportion of migrants aged 20–35 who receive education fluctuates, and ethnic minorities, western regions, and migrants with high education were more likely to receive HIV health education. Conclusion: These findings identify when implementing health education for migrants, we can carry out more education for specific groups to promote the health equity of the migrant population.

The effect of different types of migration on symptoms of anxiety or depression and experience of violence among people who use or inject drugs in Kachin State, Myanmar

BackgroundEvidence on the social determinants of mental health conditions and violence among people who inject or use drugs (PWUD) is limited, particularly in conflict-affected countries. We estimated the prevalence of symptoms of anxiety or depression and experience of emotional or physical violence among PWUD in Kachin State in Myanmar and examined their association with structural determinants, focusing on types of past migration (migration for any reason, economic or forced displacement).MaterialsA cross-sectional survey was conducted among PWUD attending a harm reduction centre between July and November 2021 in Kachin State, Myanmar. We used logistic regression models to measure associations between past migration, economic migration and forced displacement on two outcomes (1) symptoms of anxiety or depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-4) and (2) physical or emotional violence (last 12 months), adjusted for key confounders.ResultsA total of 406, predominantly male (96.8%), PWUD were recruited. The median age (IQR) was 30 (25, 37) years, most injected drugs (81.5%) and more commonly opioid substances such as heroin or opium (85%). Symptoms of anxiety or depression (PHQ4 ≥ 6) were high (32.8%) as was physical or emotional violence in the last 12 months (61.8%). Almost one-third (28.3%) had not lived in Waingmaw for their whole life (migration for any reason), 77.9% had left home for work at some point (economic migration) and 19.5% had been forced to leave home due to war or armed conflict (forced displacement). A third were in unstable housing in the last 3 months (30.1%) and reported going hungry in the last 12 months (27.7%). Only forced displacement was associated with symptoms of anxiety or depression [adjusted odds ratio, aOR 2.33 (95% confidence interval, CI 1.32–4.11)] and recent experience of violence [aOR 2.18 (95% CI 1.15–4.15)].ConclusionFindings highlight the importance of mental health services integrated into existing harm reduction services to address high levels of anxiety or depression among PWUD, particularly among those who have been displaced through armed conflict or war. Findings reinforce the need to address broader social determinants, in the form of food poverty, unstable housing and stigma, in order to reduce mental health and violence.

Why, how and with whom? The impact of perceived ally motives on migrants’ support for collective actions

Social inequalities between migrants and the host society trigger collective actions that aim to reduce such inequalities. Such actions can be led by migrants themselves, or by advantaged members from the host society who act as allies. In three studies conducted in Spain (N Study 1 = 182 low vulnerability migrants; N Study 2 = 160 forced migrants and refugees; N Study 3 = 418 migrants with different levels of vulnerability) we evaluated: How perceived ally motives (egalitarian, paternalistic and performative) impact three different types of migrants’ collective action tendencies: pro-alliance (e.g., meetings between migrants and Spaniards), led by Spaniards (e.g., pro-migrant demonstrations organized by Spaniards), and/or led by migrants (e.g., creation of political associations led by migrants). Additionally, we evaluated what type of alliance (as one-group recategorization or coalition) migrants prefer to build with members of the advantaged group. We also analyzed how perceived motives to support migrants relate to the evaluation for the types of alliance (Studies 2 and 3), and whether the level of vulnerability of the participants moderates the role of perceived paternalistic motives on collective action tendencies (Study 3). The results confirm that perceived ally egalitarian motives predict higher migrant support for pro-alliance collective action, as well as those led by Spanish allies across studies. Perceived paternalistic motives have a greater impact on highly socioeconomically vulnerable migrant support for collective action tendencies than on less vulnerable ones. There is no clear pattern of preference about perceiving themselves as part of a singular group (one-group recategorization) or in a coalition with advantaged group members who share the goal to promote migrants’ rights. However, perceived egalitarian motives are positively related to the value attached to one-group recategorization. This research contributes to understanding the factors involved in participation to achieve social change amongst refugees or asylum seekers as well as less vulnerable migrants.

Навчання мови як чинник збереження ідентичности українців у Польщі

Language learning as a factor in preserving the identity of Ukrainians in Poland. One of the primary factors in fostering national identity is mastery of one’s native language, preservation of national memory, and nurturing of cultural traditions of one’s people. The Republic of Poland is a state that has one of the most significant Ukrainian minorities and has hospitably sheltered a vast mass of Ukrainian immigrants who left the Motherland due to Russian military aggression. The purpose of the article is to investigate the possibilities for preserving the identity of Ukrainians in 17 Poland through teaching children their native language. We have implemented the following tasks to achieve the goal: 1) We have determined the role of the national language in preserving identity. 2) We have clarified the historical and political prerequisites for a large Ukrainian community in Poland. 3) We have outlined the distinct types of educational opportunities for teaching children their native language in the Republic of Poland. 4) We have revealed the trends in the positioning of the Ukrainian language in Polish society. The article draws attention to different types of migration of Ukrainians. It reveals specific differences in intentions to nurture Ukrainian identity, satisfy one’s own national and cultural needs, and avoid assimilation. We have distinguished and characterized three types of educational institutions in the modern education school of the Republic of Poland where children are taught the Ukrainian language: Saturday schools or educational institutions under public organizations; Polish secondary schools, where Ukrainian is studied as a second foreign language; Educational institutions that conduct Ukrainian language training. We have revealed that the primary trend related to the positioning of the Ukrainian language in Polish society is the strengthening of its status in line with the educational policy of the European Union due to the increased interest of Poles in Ukraine, its language and culture.

Typology of International Migration in Globalization Challenges for Realizing Bangladeshi Migrant Worker’s Rights and Their Contribution to Social Development

Purposive movement of people in a global era that sense may term international migration where the interaction of global and local networks takes place in various forms. The globalizing economy is one of the prime forces behind migration where the traditional push and pull factors have been amplified as “glocal” interaction. Conversely, the term globalization may be used to refer to a set of processes that are thought to transfer or exchange social, political, economic, and cultural conditions in another nation-state spontaneously. The present diasporic societies make it easier for the migrant to find such thing as shelter and work at the same time remittance to their home country have become an increasingly significant factor in globalization and the economies of many home countries. The international population movement bolsters the economies of individual families and the state at large by selling their labor through the different typologies of international migration such as permanent migrant settler, migrant student, refugee and asylum seeker, undocumented migrants, and migrant workers. Employment Abroad Bangladesh began exporting its labor force in 1976 to the present mentioning the migrant worker categories, short terms migrant, skilled, semi-skilled, and inept are regularized to exchange their human capital for earning foreign currency. Empirical research studies have been conducted on international migration along with qualitative research methods applied for tracing the present scenario with the study of taken initiatives of Bangladesh government for the importance of labor migration in our national economy. As other finding shows that overseas skilled and semi-skilled migrants were a good number in 2000 then it kept increasing, In the continuous process, our trained employees increased by 36,025 in 2001 and in 2002 it raised to 56,265. Thus, in 2003, 74,530 skilled workers moved, and the number of semi-skilled laborers increased by 29,236 from 2005 to 2007. In 2007, remittances earned by foreign workers totaled $6.568 billion. The Ministry of Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas Employment of Bangladesh reported that annual remittances transferred to our basket were almost $22.1 billion in 2021, the seventh highest in the world and the third highest in South Asia. In other words, it is the flow of funds associated with immigration though the current net migration rate for Bangladesh in 2022 is -2.113 per 1000 population, a 2.18% decline from 2021. This article aims to show different types of migration in the holistic spectrum of economic globalization concerning migrant workers of Bangladesh and their contribution through remittance to our economy and society, and also, analyze the role of local and international organizations on labor migration policies, especially those that normalize to exchange of migrant workers in Bangladesh.

Moving North and Coming Back: How Concerns about Different Types of Migrants Affect Social Policy Demands among Low- and High-Skilled Mexicans

Middle-income countries experience various types of migration: transients, emigrants, refugees, and returnees. Their domestic economy is especially influenced by refugees and returnees. Since returnees and refugees vary in access to social policy programs and in skill composition, different types of migration should vary in “threat potential” for social policy demands, with the low-skilled responding more negatively to refugees, while the high-skilled face greater competition from returning natives. We test our argument with original survey data from Mexico, distinguishing respondents’ concerns about two distinct streams of migration: Central Americans seeking refuge in Mexico and Mexicans returning from living in the United States. Surprisingly, we find that the low-skilled's welfare preferences suffer neither type of migration concern, whereas high-skilled Mexicans oppose expanding social welfare when concern about returnees is high. Social solidarity in the welfare state is most depressed by returning natives.

(Climate) Migrants welcome? Evidence from a survey experiment in Austria

We study how economic, conflict, and environmental drivers of migration influence immigration acceptance in a receiving country. We carried out an online survey experiment in autumn 2015 with 686 student participants from the University of Innsbruck in Austria. In the survey experiment, respondents state their acceptance for a fictitious migrant from Chad where we vary the following causes of the migration decision: (1) violent conflicts, (2) environmental degradation due to global climate change, (3) environmental degradation due to local overuse, and (4) better economic prospects. We find that respondents support migrants who move because of climate change as much as conflict migrants. Acceptance is lowest for migrants who decide to leave for economic reasons, while it is slightly higher in the case of environmental degradation due to local overuse. Strikingly, a sizable share of respondents (25%) would even reject conflict migrants. Respondents who perceive a negative correlation between welfare, crime rates and job opportunities, and the presence of immigrants display lower immigration acceptance for all motives underlying the migration decision. In addition, we find heterogeneous effects depending on the respondents’ gender and political affiliation. Respondents with right-wing party preferences disclose lower acceptance levels for all causes except conflict. Female respondents are more accepting of climate migrants and less of economic migrants than men. This paper informs the debate around the ongoing political and societal polarization in Europe and elsewhere on the acceptance of different types of migrants.

Impact of migration status on incidence of depression in the middle-aged and elderly population in China: Exploring healthy migrant and salmon bias hypotheses from a mental health perspective

BackgroundThe healthy migrant and salmon bias hypotheses stipulate that those who are healthier are more likely to migrate (a selection effect) and unhealthy migrants have a greater tendency to return to their origin communities than healthier migrants. It remains unclear whether the hypotheses are relevant for mental health, although they have robust evidence for physical health. The current study expands the theoretical foundation underlying these hypotheses by exploring the impact of migration status on depression among the middle-aged and older population in China. MethodLongitudinal data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) in 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2018 were used. Participants were divided into three groups, non-migrants, permanent migrants, and return-migrants according to their migration status. The Chinese version of 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale was used to assess clinically relevant depressive symptoms. Incidence were estimated by each migration status and compared across strata using log-rank tests. Cox regression models were fit to assess the relationship between migration status and depression incidence. ResultsA total of 9264 middle-aged and elderly participants were included, of whom 7047 (76.1 %) were non-migrants, 1065 (11.5 %) were permanent migrants, and 1152 (12.4 %) were return-migrants, respectively. Incidence rates of depression by different migration statuses were 76.6/103 person-years (73.7/103–79.7/103) in non-migrants, 62.9/103 person-years (55.9/103–70.6/103) in permanent migrants, and 67.3/103 person-years (60.7/103–74.5/103) in return-migrants. After controlling for covariates, only permanent migrants had significantly lower incidence of depression than non-migrants (HR: 0.85 (0.75, 0.96)). After stratifying by current place of residence, urban-permanent-migrants had a lower risk of depression than both rural and urban non-migrants, and the HRs and 95%CIs were 0.62 (0.52–0.74) and 0.81 (0.68–0.97). LimitationsMigration statuses of participants may have changed over time, but due to the lack of raw data on migration status in 2013 and 2015, we used migration status at baseline. We were also not able to contextualize the migration experiences among those who migrated, and these trajectories may be heterogeneous. ConclusionUsing depression as an indicator of mental health, the healthy migrant hypothesis was supported among middle-aged and elderly permanent migrants living in urban areas while the salmon bias hypothesis was not. Significant urban-rural inequities in mental health existed among different types of migrants. Especially among permanent migrants who have migrated and converted Hukou from their original registration place to their current residence.

The Immigration of Galician Jews to Hungary in the Age of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, 1867-1914

This study is concerned with the immigration of Galician Jews to Hungary. The first section examines the newspapers in circulation in the counties along the border and asks: What rhetorical devices did they use, and what commonplaces did they employ to justify their stereotypical and biased lines of argument in relation to the coexistence of Jews and established local societies. This section is followed by a description of the central government’s efforts to regulate migration. The study concludes with a study of the different types of migration (temporary, circular, repetitive, etc.) and provides an opportunity to interpret the contradiction between statistical data and contemporaries’ perception of “reality.”

Глобальная мобильность в эпоху пандемии

The article is aimed at examining the impact of the COVID‑19 pandemic on international migration and the immigration policies of the main host countries. The authors distinguish three periods in the response of nation states to the outbreak of the virus. The first one (February–March 2020) was securitization. During this period, the public health imperative was placed above economic considerations. The second period (spring 2020 – autumn 2021) was adaptation. The third, in which we now live, could be called routinization. Many countries, with the exception of those with a zero tolerance policy for COVID‑19, have chosen to coexist with the virus. The authors demonstrate a significant reduction in migration flows as a direct result of the closure of state borders. Different types of migration have been affected differently by the pandemic. Non-labor market migration (family reunification, humanitarian migration, etc.) suffered the most. The new situation reduced the number of asylum applications (though not the number of refugees themselves). Student migration was initially subject to severe restrictions, but by the end of 2020, many of them were lifted. As for labor migration, despite the draconian measures to reduce it, initially taken in a number of countries, it was soon restored to its previous volumes. The pandemic made it evident how deeply the national economies depend on migration. That is why significant changes were made to immigration policy aimed at full access of migrants to social security systems and the settlement of their legal status. In particular, many G‑20 countries, regardless of their political regimes, have introduced measures such as free medical examinations and medical care for migrant workers, including undocumented ones.