Different Types Of Exercise Training Research Articles

The effect of pentoxifylline and different types of exercise training on coagulation factors in a rat endometriosis model

ObjectivesThis study evaluated the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), and pentoxifylline (PTX) on coagulation factors, including the amount and percentage of lymphocytes, PLC, PLR, aPTT, PT, PT.I.N. R in a model of rats with endometriosis. MethodsEndometriosis was surgically induced in female SpragueDawley rats. The rats with confirmed endometrial implants were divided into control, MICT, pentoxifylline (D), HIIT+D, and MICT+D, HIIT groups. D and exercise interventions were performed for eight weeks. Then, the macroscopic size of endometriosis lesions was measured, and inflammatory factors (count and percentage of lymphocytes) and coagulation factors, including PLC, PLR, aPTT, PT, PT.I.N. R, and PLR in blood samples were evaluated. ResultsD significantly decreased the volume of lesions and significantly increased PT and PT.I.N. R in blood. HIIT decreased the volume of lesions and significantly increased PT. MICT did not cause significant effects on the target variables. MICT+D decreased the volume of lesions. HIIT+D significantly decreased the volume of lesions and PLC and increased aPTT as well as the count and percentage of lymphocytes, PT, and PT.I.N. R, and decreased PLR. ConclusionsAll interventions(except for MICT) especially HIIT+D and D by priority, induced a significant effect on reducing some indices of inflammation and coagulation.

Effect of Exercise Training on Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ (PPAR-γ) Level: A Systematic Review

Context: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ) plays a crucial role in regulating oxidative phosphorylation and energy utilization, both of which are diminished in obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2DM), major risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is well established that exercise, as one of the significant modifiable lifestyle factors, is associated with the expression and activity of PPAR-γ-controlled genes. Evidence Acquisition: In this systematic review, we conducted comprehensive searches across various databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, for relevant literature published between January 2000 and May 2022. This study focused on published articles (in-vivo and human) in English. This review encompasses 16 studies (4 involving humans and 12 involving animals). Results: The findings from 14 studies indicated that various types of exercise programs, including regular exercise, resistance exercise, swimming, climbing, and treadmill running, effectively improved PPAR-γ levels in individuals with T2DM, obese populations, and healthy subjects. Only two studies reported no significant improvement in PPAR-γ levels following physical activity. Notably, all studies involving subjects with T2DM showed improved PPAR-γ levels after exercise training. Conclusions: Upon comparing various types of exercise training, the collected data suggest that all forms of aerobic exercise, regardless of their type and duration, have the potential to up-regulate PPAR-γ messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression. This study lays the foundation for further research into the association between different types of exercise training and PPAR-γ levels/activity across various human populations. However, given the limited number of human studies, further high-quality research is necessary to draw firm conclusions.

Influence of isometric versus isotonic exercise training on right ventricular morpho-functional parameters in Olympic athletes.

Cardiovascular adaptations in elite athletes involve both ventricular and atrial changes. Nowadays, limited research exists on right ventricular (RV) remodeling, particularly in female athletes and across different types of exercise training. Our study evaluated 370 athletes (61% males) participated at 2020 Tokyo and 2022 Beijing Olympic Games. Athletes were categorized according to main type of exercise into isometric and isotonic. Comprehensive echocardiographic assessments were conducted to analyze RV morpho-functional parameters, comparing genders and different sporting exercise. Significant differences in RV parameters were observed based on exercise type and gender. Isotonic athletes showed greater RV remodeling with larger RV outflow tract (15.1±2.1 vs. 14.5±1.7mm, p<.0001) end-diastolic and end-systolic area (respectively, 24.6±5.5vs. 21.7±5mm, p<.000 and 11.7±3.2vs. 10.1±2.8mm, p<.0001) and right atrium size (11.7±3.2vs. 10.2±2.3mm2 , p=.0001). Functional parameters, such as TDI velocities, were similar between groups. Males showed larger RV area and right atrium size (p<.0001) and lower RV TDI velocities with reduced E' (15.4±2.9vs. 16.1±3.2m/s in females, p=.031), resulting in lower E'/A' ratio (1.69±.6vs. 1.84±.6m/s, p=.021), while S' was lower females (14.6±2.3vs. 14.1±2.4m/s, p=.041). RV TDI velocities were similar in isotonic and isometric both in male and females. In elite athletes, RV morphological changes are influenced by exercise modality but do not translate into functional differences. Female athletes present distinct RV functional profiles, with lower S' velocities and a higher E'/A' ratio. Functional RV TDI parameters are not affected by the typology of exercise practiced.

Benefits of exercise training on divergent thinking: The mediating role of ambiguity tolerance.

Exercise training has been proposed as a method for improving cognitive function. However, it is unknown whether chronic physical activity promotes divergent thinking and its underlying mechanism. Ambiguity tolerance has been considered relevant to divergent thinking. Therefore, this study sought to investigate whether individuals engaging in different types of exercise training differed in divergent thinking and to examine the mediating role of ambiguity tolerance underlying the training effect. The study was conducted in a sample of 492 university students who completed the unusual use task and the ambiguity tolerance questionnaire. The results revealed that individuals who underwent physical training proposed more creative ideas than non-physical training individuals did. Individuals engaging in multiple movement training scored higher in fluency, flexibility, and originality than their counterparts engaging in single movement training. Furthermore, ambiguity tolerance fully explained the difference in divergent thinking fluency between the physical and non-physical training groups. These findings provide preliminary evidence for the benefits of physical training on divergent thinking.

Comparison of three different exercise trainings in patients with chronic neck pain: a randomized controlled study.

Neck pain is a common problem in the general population and second only to low back pain in musculoskeletal problems. The aim of this study is to compare three different types of exercise training in patients with chronic neck pain. This study was conducted on 45 patients with neck pain. Patients were divided into 3 groups: Group 1 (conventional treatment), Group 2 (conventional treatment plus deep cervical flexor training), and Group 3 (conventional treatment plus stabilization of the neck and core region). The exercise programs were applied for four weeks, three days a week. The demographic data, pain intensity (verbal numeric pain scale), posture (Reedco's posture scale), cervical range of motion ([ROM] goniometer), and disability (Neck Disability Index [NDI]) were evaluated. In all groups, a significant improvement was found in terms of pain, posture, ROM, and NDI values in all groups (P < 0.001). Between the groups, analyses showed that the pain and posture improved more in Group 3, while the ROM and NDI improved more in Group 2. In addition to conventional treatment, applying core stabilization exercises or deep cervical flexor muscle training to patients with neck pain may be more effective in reducing pain and disability and increasing ROM than conventional treatment alone.

Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Scoping Review.

There is a substantial literature gap related to the vascular response to different types of exercise training in middle-aged and older populations. Thus, this scoping review aimed to examine the outcomes of controlled trials testing the long-term effects of exercise interventions on vascular function-related outcomes in middle-aged and older populations. The literature search was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. Data sources: five databases were used (EBSCO, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar). Eligibility criteria: controlled trials, published in the last 10 years, in English, containing well-described exercise interventions, reporting vascular quantitative effects of exercise in middle-aged and older people. A total of 62 publications were included. The studies included distinct types and intensities of exercise and were heterogeneous in volume and frequency. The assessed vascular outcomes also presented considerable variability. Overall, most studies reported positive effects of exercise on vascular function outcomes, regardless of exercise characteristics. Different exercise interventions can be applied to improve vascular function in middle-aged and older adults. Studies on combined and stretching exercises reported encouraging results in improving vascular function. Stretching exercises rise as an effective alternative in promoting vascular function among older adults, while combined exercise delivered promising vascular benefits in both populations.

Effectiveness of Pulmonary Rehabilitation Performed Through Exercise Training for Patients with Stable COPD: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

The application of pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) improves functional capacity and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) at all stages of disease severity. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of PR, performed through exercise training (PR-ET), on functional capacity and HRQoL in patients with stable COPD. The meta-analysis was performed by including randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving patients with stable COPD who participated in different types of PR-ET in which six-minute walk distance (6MWD) and/ or St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire total scores (SGRQ) were measured. The data search was conducted in December 2020 and January 2021. The first meta-analysis showed a statistically significant positive effect (MD=31.73m; p<0.00001) of PR-ET on 6MWD. Similarly, the second meta-analysis found a statistically significant favourable effect of pulmonary rehabilitation through exercise training on SGRQ total scores (MD=-8.09; p=0.002). PR, which includes several different types of exercise training, has a positive effect on the functional capacity and HRQoL of patients with stable COPD. Further studies should be conducted to determine the effects of home-based PR-ET and PR-ET >8 weeks on SGRQ total scores.

Impact of two different types of exercise training on AMPH addiction: Role of hippocampal neurotrophins

IntroductionAmphetamine (AMPH) abuse results in neurobehavioral alterations related to the reward circuit. The hippocampus plays a role in cognition, reward, and drug addiction. There are no pharmacological approaches to prevent AMPH relapse. Physical exercise has been studied as a non-pharmacological promising influence to attenuate reward symptoms related to addictive drugs. ObjectiveThis study aimed to compare the effects of non-weight-loaded and weight-loaded physical exercise on behavioral (relapse, memory and anxiety) and hippocampal molecular parameters associated with AMPH addiction in Wistar rats. MethodsMale rats were subjected to the AMPH-Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) paradigm. After 8-conditioning days, they were subjected to swimming physical exercise protocol (without or with weight-load). Behavioral evaluations were performed to assess the influence of both exercise protocols in addiction parameters, including relapse after AMPH reconditioning, working memory, locomotor activity, and anxiety-like symptoms. Subsequently, protein levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and pro-BDNF ex-vivo assays were carried out in samples of the hippocampus of the animals. ResultsAMPH relapse and anxiety-like behaviors were reduced only in rats subjected to non-weight-loaded exercise. Hippocampal BDNF and pro-BDNF immunoreactivity were increased in non-weight-loaded exercise rats. Behavioral and molecular analyses were not modified in rats subjected to weight-loaded exercise. ConclusionThese findings demonstrate that non-weight-loaded exercise was more effective against relapse and anxiety-like behavior induced by AMPH. Non-weight-loaded exercise upregulated the hippocampal immunocontent levels in rats.

Myokines and Resistance Training: A Narrative Review.

In the last few years, the muscular system has gained attention due to the discovery of the muscle-secretome and its high potency for retaining or regaining health. These cytokines, described as myokines, released by the working muscle, are involved in anti-inflammatory, metabolic and immunological processes. These are able to influence human health in a positive way and are a target of research in metabolic diseases, cancer, neurological diseases, and other non-communicable diseases. Therefore, different types of exercise training were investigated in the last few years to find associations between exercise, myokines and their effects on human health. Particularly, resistance training turned out to be a powerful stimulus to enhance myokine release. As there are different types of resistance training, different myokines are stimulated, depending on the mode of training. This narrative review gives an overview about resistance training and how it can be utilized to stimulate myokine production in order to gain a certain health effect. Finally, the question of why resistance training is an important key regulator in human health will be discussed.

Effects of different types of exercise training on angiogenic responses in the left ventricular muscle of aged rats.

We evaluated angiogenic responses in the left ventricular muscle and aerobic capacity according to exercise type (aerobic, resistance, combined) in aged rats. In total, 24 male Sprague-Dawley rats (100weeks old) were used. To investigate the effect of regular training, the rats were divided into non-exercise (NE), aerobic exercise (AE), resistance exercise (RE), and combined exercise (CE) groups (six rats per group). Regular training tailored to each exercise type was performed for 8weeks (five times a week, 1h per day). After 8weeks of training, aerobic capacity was evaluated by a treadmill running test. Left ventricular muscle tissue was collected and the protein levels of angiogenesis indicators (eNOS, HIF-1α, PGC-1α, VEGF, FLK-1, Ang-1, Ang-2) were analyzed by Western blotting. Capillaries were observed by immunohistochemical staining for CD31. Body weight, heart weight, and heart/body weight ratio showed no difference among the groups. The AE and CE groups showed higher treadmill running capacity than the NE and RE groups. The eNOS, VEGF, HIF-1α, PGC-1α, and Ang-2 protein levels were significantly higher in the AE than NE group. The PGC-1α and FLK-1 protein levels were significantly higher in the RE than NE group. In addition, in the CE group, the eNOS, FLK-1, and PGC-1α protein levels were significantly higher than in the NE group. Expression of CD31 in cardiac tissue was higher in the AE and CE groups than in the other groups. Taken together, the results suggest that regular exercise training, irrespective of exercise type, might improve cardiovascular function by inducing angiogenic responses in the aged myocardium; however, AE may be the most effective.

A Mixed Comparisons of Aerobic Training With Different Volumes and Intensities of Physical Exercise in Patients With Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis.

It is essential for patients with hypertension to effectively reduce and maintain appropriate blood pressure levels. As one of the non-pharmacological and invasive methods, physical exercise seems to improve blood pressure of the patients with hypertension. However, different volumes and intensities of physical exercise on the improvement of hypertension are different. To understand the effects of the type of exercise training on blood pressure and the other health status of patients with hypertension, a network meta-analysis was used to compare the mixed effects of different types of exercise training. This systematic review includes all eligible randomized controlled trials of PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Library, and CINAHL. Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 846 participants at the end of the study). The results show that a medium-intensity training (MIT) is best in improving the blood pressure of patients with hypertension, while a high-volume high-intensity interval training (HVHIIT) is better in reducing body mass and resting heart rate. In addition, the analysis of the exercise capacity shows that HVHIIT has a better effect on the improvement of patients with hypertension. Noticeably, long-term high-volume and appropriate intensity exercise can effectively improve the health status of patients with hypertension. In short, for patients with high blood pressure, MIT seems to be better at lowering blood pressure, while HVHIIT can better improve exercise ability and physical fitness. However, larger randomized controlled trials with a longer duration than those included in this meta-analysis are needed to confirm these results.

Comparison of different types of exercise training on resting blood pressure in 30-45 years old adults: a randomised controlled trial

Hypertension is the most metastasizing non-communicable disease, which has affected more than 1.4 billion people, worldwide. Exercise is the core management strategy for hypertensive individuals. Extensive literature is available for each kind of exercise that is isometric hand grip training (IHGT), resistance training (RT), and aerobic training (AT). However, the comparison between these exercise regimens has not been done in a single trial. The trial was conducted on 126 subjects in Hisar, an urban area of Haryana (INDIA), from July 2017 to December 2018. Subjects were randomly assigned to four groups: control (n=33), IHGT (n=32), RT (n=31), and AT (n=30). Study variables were measured at baseline, 2nd week, 4th week, 6th week, and also after the 8th week of intervention. Experimental groups showed significant reduction in all the components of blood pressure in comparison to control group. The RT group showed maximum reduction in blood pressure in comparison to other regimens (systolic blood pressure: RT &gt; IHGT &gt; AT; diastolic blood pressure: RT &gt; AT &gt; IHGT). However, the difference between the groups is not statistically significant (P&gt;0.05). The study findings reveal that different kind of exercise regimens are equally effective in lowering blood pressure among pre hypertensive and stage 1 hypertension adults.

Exercise Training Alleviates Cardiac Fibrosis through Increasing Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 and Regulating TGF-β1-Smad2/3-MMP2/9 Signaling in Mice with Myocardial Infarction.

Exercise training has been reported to alleviate cardiac fibrosis and ameliorate heart dysfunction after myocardial infarction (MI), but the molecular mechanism is still not fully clarified. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) exerts a protective effect on the infarcted heart. This study investigates whether exercise training could increase FGF21 protein expression and regulate the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-Smad2/3-MMP2/9 signaling pathway to alleviate cardiac fibrosis following MI. Male wild type (WT) C57BL/6J mice and Fgf21 knockout (Fgf21 KO) mice were used to establish the MI model and subjected to five weeks of different types of exercise training. Both aerobic exercise training (AET) and resistance exercise training (RET) significantly alleviated cardiac dysfunction and fibrosis, up-regulated FGF21 protein expression, inhibited the activation of TGF-β1-Smad2/3-MMP2/9 signaling pathway and collagen production, and meanwhile, enhanced antioxidant capacity and reduced cell apoptosis in the infarcted heart. In contrast, knockout of Fgf21 weakened the cardioprotective effects of AET after MI. In vitro, cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) were isolated from neonatal mice hearts and treated with H2O2 (100 μM, 6 h). Recombinant human FGF21 (rhFGF21, 100 ng/mL, 15 h) and/or 5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR, 1 mM, 15 h) inhibited H2O2-induced activation of the TGF-β1-Smad2/3-MMP2/9 signaling pathway, promoted CFs apoptosis and reduced collagen production. In conclusion, exercise training increases FGF21 protein expression, inactivates the TGF-β1-Smad2/3-MMP2/9 signaling pathway, alleviates cardiac fibrosis, oxidative stress, and cell apoptosis, and finally improves cardiac function in mice with MI. FGF21 plays an important role in the anti-fibrosis effect of exercise training.

Heart rate variability modifications in response to different types of exercise training in athletes.

Spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) is a long-standing technique to indirectly assess neural cardiac regulation. This article specifically addressed how spectral analysis of HRV could help to understand neural cardiovascular adaptations to long-term exercise training; and inform us on training status in athletes. We reviewed literature searching for articles investigating resting cardiovascular adaptations to long-term exercise training through spectral analysis of HRV in athletes, from amateur to world class categories, practicing different sport disciplines, and focusing, in particular, on a series of work performed over time in our laboratory, which may highlight how different types of exercise training differently affect neural cardiac regulation. Spectral analysis of HRV has been shown its capability of detecting different adaptational changes in cardiac autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulation attending physical training in athletes of different sport disciplines. Studies showed that spectral analysis of HRV provide results that are sport-dependent and differ at individual level. ANS adaptations to exercise training are presented and discussed. Reported studies indicate that spectral analysis of HRV is an effective tool to monitor and optimize the training process and to predict athletic achievements in competitions. Cardiac ANS adaptations are strongly dependant on the type of training being performed. The individual nature of cardiac ANS adaptations should be considered to properly interpret the observed findings.

Effect of Exercise Training on Fat Loss-Energetic Perspectives and the Role of Improved Adipose Tissue Function and Body Fat Distribution.

In obesity, excessive abdominal fat, especially the accumulation of visceral adipose tissue (VAT), increases the risk of metabolic disorders, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Excessive abdominal fat is associated with adipose tissue dysfunction, leading to systemic low-grade inflammation, fat overflow, ectopic lipid deposition, and reduced insulin sensitivity. Physical activity is recommended for primary prevention and treatment of obesity, T2DM, and related disorders. Achieving a stable reduction in body weight with exercise training alone has not shown promising effects on a population level. Because fat has a high energy content, a large amount of exercise training is required to achieve weight loss. However, even when there is no weight loss, exercise training is an effective method of improving body composition (increased muscle mass and reduced fat) as well as increasing insulin sensitivity and cardiorespiratory fitness. Compared with traditional low-to-moderate-intensity continuous endurance training, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) are more time-efficient as exercise regimens and produce comparable results in reducing total fat mass, as well as improving cardiorespiratory fitness and insulin sensitivity. During high-intensity exercise, carbohydrates are the main source of energy, whereas, with low-intensity exercise, fat becomes the predominant energy source. These observations imply that HIIT and SIT can reduce fat mass during bouts of exercise despite being associated with lower levels of fat oxidation. In this review, we explore the effects of different types of exercise training on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation during physical activity, and discuss the potential effects of exercise training on adipose tissue function and body fat distribution.

Effects of Different Types of Exercise Training on Fine Motor Skills and Testosterone Concentration in Adolescents: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial.

We sought to compare the effect of two types of exercise training on fine motor skills and to establish their association with the salivary testosterone. Research participants, 135 adolescents (68 adolescent females; mean age = 12.76, SD = 0.85) were assigned into three groups: coordinative exercise (CE), cardiovascular exercise (CVE), and the control group (CON). Fine motor skills were assessed with a drawing trail test and salivary testosterone concentration was measured before and after 10 weeks of intervention. There were no significant changes in fine motor skills and testosterone concentration after either CE or CVE training. However, a significant positive correlation between post-test fine motor skills and post-test testosterone concentration was found after the CVE training. One type of exercise training cannot be singled out as more effective for fine motor skills and testosterone activity. Nevertheless, our results showed a relationship between fine motor skills and testosterone concentration after the CVE training. Thus, the type of exercise training is important in the exercise-induced testosterone effect on fine motor skills.

The Effects of Physical Activity on the Aging of Circulating Immune Cells in Humans: A Systematic Review

Age-induced cellular senescence leads to a decline in efficacy of immune response and an increase in morbidity and mortality. Physical activity may be an intervention to slow down or reverse this process for elderly individuals or even delay it via enhanced activity over their lifespan. The aim of this systematic review was to analyze and discuss the current evidence of the effects of physical activity on senescence in leukocyte subpopulations. Two electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science) were scanned in July 2020. Studies performing endurance or resistance exercise programs and investigating leukocytes of healthy, particularly elderly subjects were included. Nine human studies were identified, including a total of 440 participants, of which two studies examined different types of exercise training retrospectively, three conducted resistance exercise, three endurance exercise, and one endurance vs. resistance training. Results revealed that exercise training increased the naïve subsets of peripheral T-helper cells and cytotoxic T-cells, whereas the senescent and effector memory T-cells re-expresses CD45RA (TEMRA) subsets decreased. Moreover, the percentage of T-helper- compared to cytotoxic T-cells increased. The results suggest that physical activity reduces or slows down cellular immunosenescence. Endurance exercise seems to affect cellular senescence in a more positive way than resistance training. However, training contents and sex also influence senescent cells. Explicit mechanisms need to be clarified.

Effect of different types of regular exercise on physical fitness in adults with overweight or obesity: Systematic review and meta-analyses.

SummaryThis systematic review examined the effect of exercise training interventions on physical fitness in adults with overweight or obesity and compared the effectiveness of different types of exercise training. Four electronic databases were searched. Articles were included if they described randomized controlled trials of exercise training interventions and their effect on maximal oxygen consumption or muscle strength in adults with overweight or obesity. Changes in outcome parameters were analyzed using random effects meta‐analyses for different training types (aerobic, resistance, combined aerobic plus resistance, and high‐intensity interval training). Eighty‐eight articles satisfied the inclusion criteria of which 66 (3964 participants) could be included in the meta‐analyses. All training types increased VO2max (mean difference 3.82 ml/min/kg (95% CI 3.17, 4.48), P < 0.00001; I 2 = 48%). In direct comparisons, resistance training was less effective in improving VO2max than aerobic training, HIIT was slightly more effective than aerobic training, and no difference between aerobic and combined aerobic plus resistance training was found. For muscle strength benefits, incorporation of resistance exercise in the training program is indicated. Exercise training increases VO2max and muscle strength in adults with overweight or obesity. Differences between training types should be weighed with other needs and preferences when health professionals advise on exercise training to improve physical fitness.

Comparison between different types of exercise training in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and network metanalysis of randomized controlled trials

AimAim of the present meta-analysis and network metanalysis (NMA) is the assessment of the effects of physical exercise on glucose control and cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes. Data synthesisThis metanalysis includes all available trials exploring the effects of different exercise modalities in type 2 diabetes, with a duration of ≥3 months. The standardized difference in means (SDM) with 95% Confidence Intervals were calculated. Data were analyzed using MetaXL and Rev Man 5.0. Primary endpoint was the effect of exercise versus no exercise on HbA1c and fasting plasma glucose (FPG) at endpoint. Secondary endpoints were body weight and fat, waist circumference, and blood pressure. A comparison of different exercise training modalities (aerobic, resistance and combined) for the same endpoints was also performed, choosing ‘no exercise’ as the reference for indirect comparisons. We included 25 trials fulfilling all inclusion criteria. Physical exercise versus no exercise produced a small, but significant, improvement of HbA1c, body fat, and systolic blood pressure at endpoint (−0.3 [-0.1;-0.4]%, −1.44 [-2.22, −0.66]%, and −5.6 [-9.5, −1.6] mmHg, respectively). Combined, supervised aerobic and resistance exercise were associated with a significantly greater reduction of HbA1c (SDM, −0.4 [-0.6;-0.3], −0.2 [-0.4;-0.1], and −0.2 [-0.3;-0.1]%, respectively), but not of FPG, in comparison with no exercise. ConclusionsPhysical exercise produces small, but detectable, advantages on glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors and should be suggested in type 2 diabetes. Combined aerobic/resistance training seems to be superior to aerobic training alone, but differences are small and the reliability of supporting evidence limited.

Cellular and molecular exercise physiology

Exercise physiology has evolved as a main area of investigation, in which the central goal is to better understand how the physiological systems respond to an acute bout of exercise and how these systems adapt to different types of exercise training. For many years and until now, exercise physiology field have been grounded in the fundamentals of biology and human physiology. However, during the last century, scientific knowledge has changed our understanding of biological sciences, allowing the integration of different areas, and increasing the focus on many sub-areas like cellular and molecular investigation. The development of new experimental techniques in the last years provided detailed information about cellstructure and function and, as a result, we could better understand not only the human body physiology, but also many diseases and their pathophysiology. Therefore, this present review intends to discuss more about cellular and molecular exercise physiology area, focusing on historical and methodological approaches, and highlighting the future perspectives for scientific knowledge and their practical application in health and exercise.