Different Types Of Enrichment Research Articles

Lockbox enrichment facilitates manipulative and cognitive activities for mice.

Due to the lack of complexity and variety of stimuli, conventional housing conditions of laboratory mice do not allow these animals to fully express their behavioral repertoire, including manipulative and cognitive activities. Therefore, we designed mechanical puzzles, so-called lockboxes, for mice that can be provided in their home cages. We investigated the impact of the lockbox enrichment on their phenotype and affective state when compared to conventional housing (CH) and super-environmental enrichment (SEE). Young adult female C57BL/6JCrl mice were examined before and after 2-month exposure to the different types of enrichment in a phenotyping test battery, including tests for trait and state anxiety-related behavior, calorimetric measurements, body weight measurements, the analysis of stress hormone metabolite concentrations, and sequential problem-solving abilities with a novel lockbox. At the end of the study, adrenal gland weights were determined and pathohistological evaluation was performed. For all continuous variables, the relative variability was calculated. While the different types of enrichment affected trait anxiety-related behavior, neither state anxiety-related behavior nor physiological variables (i.e., bodyweight, resting metabolic rate, stress hormone metabolite concentrations, adrenal gland weights) were influenced. LE improved sequential problem-solving (i.e., solving novel lockboxes) when compared to SEE. Regardless of the housing condition, the relative variability increased in most variables over time, although the coefficient of variation decreased for some variables, especially in animals with access to LE. There was no evidence of toxicopathological effects associated with the material from which the lockboxes were made. All lockboxes are available as open-source tool. LE revealed beneficial effects on the affective state of laboratory mice and their performance in solving novel lockboxes. Neither relevant phenotype of the mice nor reproducibility of the data were compromised by LE, similar to SEE. The lockboxes may also be used as novel approach for assessing cognition in mice.

Lockbox enrichment facilitates manipulative and cognitive activities for mice

Background Due to the lack of complexity and variety of stimuli, conventional housing conditions of laboratory mice do not allow these animals to fully express their behavioral repertoire, including manipulative and cognitive activities. Therefore, we designed mechanical puzzles, so-called lockboxes, for mice that can be provided in their home cages. We investigated the impact of the lockbox enrichment on their phenotype and affective state when compared to conventional housing and super-environmental enrichment. Methods Young adult female C57BL/6JCrl mice were examined before and after 2-month exposure to the different types of enrichment in a phenotyping test battery, including tests for trait and state anxiety-related behavior, calorimetric measurements, body weight measurements, and the analysis of stress hormone metabolite concentrations as well as sequential problem-solving abilities. At the end of the study, adrenal gland weights were determined and pathohistological evaluation was performed. For all continuous variables, the relative variability was calculated. Results We demonstrated that lockbox enrichment decreased trait anxiety-related behavior compared to conventional housing in the Grid Exploratory Paradigm. In contrast, the different types of enrichment neither influenced state anxiety-related behavior in the Open Field and Elevated Plus Maze Test nor physiological variables (i.e., bodyweight, resting metabolic rate, stress hormone metabolite concentrations, and adrenal gland weights). Lockbox enrichment improved sequential problem-solving when compared to super-environmental enrichment. Regardless of the housing condition, the relative variability increased in most variables over time, although the coefficient of variation decreased for some variables, especially in animals with access to the lockbox enrichment. A pathohistological evaluation revealed no evidence of toxicopathological effects associated with the material from which the lockbox enrichment was made. Conclusions Overall, the lockbox enrichment revealed beneficial effects on the affective state and sequential problem-solving abilities of laboratory mice. The reproducibility was demonstrated not to be compromised by lockbox enrichment, similar to super-environmental enrichment.

Effects of food-based enrichment on enclosure use and behavioral patterns in captive mammalian predators: a case study from an Austrian wildlife park.

Combining naturalistic enclosure design and animal welfare with visitor interests and education can be challenging for zoos and wildlife parks. To accomplish both purposes, different types of enrichment (food-based or non-food-based items, such as environmental, sensory, cognitive, social) can be used. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of food-based and olfactory enrichments on enclosure use, behavior, and visibility of captive brown bears (Ursus arctos), pine martens (Martes martes), domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo), and golden jackals (Canis aureus). We used observational approaches to measure enclosure use, behavior, and visibility during three different experimental phases: (1) pre-enrichment (baseline, no experience with the enrichment yet), (2) during enrichment (enrichment was provided at low frequented locations in the enclosures that are easily visible to visitors), and (3) post-enrichment (enrichment was removed from the enclosures). We found that enrichment led to a uniform use of the enclosure and enhanced visibility in brown bears, increased activity budgets in pine martens, and observed high object interaction in both species. No effects of enrichment were detected in domestic ferrets. Golden jackals did not leave their burrows during daytime during the entire observation period; thus, observations were not possible at all. Our results suggest different effects of food-based enrichment, e.g., enclosure use, temporal activity patterns, and animal visibility. However, further studies should control for the specific role of the factors involved. Our study represents one of the first explorations of food-based enrichment in rather understudied species.

Ruff Morning? The Use of Environmental Enrichment during an Acute Stressor in Kenneled Shelter Dogs.

The length of stay for some animals has increased with the recent reduction of animals euthanized in US shelters and animal control facilities. Research examining the effectiveness of different types of enrichment on buffering the effects of acute daily stressors in the shelter environment, such as kennel cleaning, is lacking. In addition, daily known stressors can result in undesirable behaviors that could lead to a need for euthanasia. Ways to effectively reduce the effects of daily stressors while optimizing strained resources is currently a high priority. In this study, we presented shelter dogs with food, tactile, and scent enrichment items to increase (arousing) or decrease (calming) activity during the daily stressor of morning kennel cleaning. We found that calming, rather than arousing, enrichment items were associated with body position scores indicative of lower stress in dogs, with calming scent enrichment (lavender) producing the most significant benefit. In contrast, items that showed the greatest reduction in vocalization were arousing (ball) compared to other arousing conditions. Our findings suggest that different unwanted behaviors in the kennel environment often associated with stress can be reduced using specific types of enrichment during a daily stressful event. Further, the results illustrate that enrichment items other than food might be more effective at decreasing certain undesirable behaviors. Overall, this study provides insight into how shelter workers might effectively use enrichment items during an unavoidable acute stressor. With many shelters keeping dogs longer, addressing events that might cause repeated stress in this population may indirectly help with adopting and lowering euthanasia rates due to unwanted behavior that develops due to repeated exposure to this necessary but acute stressor of morning cleaning.

Environmental Enrichment Factors Associated with the Activity Level of Bottlenose Dolphins under Professional Care

Environmental enrichment can be used to improve the welfare of dolphins in zoos and aquariums. Bottlenose dolphins under professional care are typically provided with a range of enrichment that has a variety of features and levels of complexity at various frequencies. In the present study, a subset of data from a larger study entitled “Towards understanding the welfare of cetaceans in zoos and aquariums” (colloquially called the Cetacean Welfare Study) was used to examine the relationship between activity level and enrichment buoyancy as well as enrichment provisioning schedules. Survey data were collected from accredited zoos and aquariums related to the types of enrichment provided to the dolphins and the frequency and duration they were supplied. Non-invasive bio-logging devices were used to record the dolphin kinematics one day per week over the course of two five-week data collection periods. Activity level related positively with the total duration of time non-stationary enrichment was provided. In addition, providing a larger number of enrichment types each between 26% and 50% of the days in a month (i.e., rotating many different types of enrichment across days on a moderate schedule) was positively related to activity level. Activity level was negatively related to the number of times sinking enrichment was provided. Understanding how the temporal schedule and features of various types of enrichment are related to activity levels will aid in developing progressively more effective enrichment programs.

Enrichment study in three captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus) at Aalborg Zoo

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are vulnerable to environmental changes, which often leads to the development of stereotypical behaviour in captivity.Multiple studies hadshownthat the usage of enrichment could reduce stereotypicalbehaviour in captive animals thereby, improving their welfare. When choosing enrichments,it is necessary to examine the individual personalities, since differences in behavioural reaction norms of the medianscould lead to different preferences among animals regarding the types of enrichment used.This study investigated the behaviour of three polar bears (one adult female and her two cubs)at Aalborg Zoo and whether different types of enrichment would have an impact on their behaviour and reduce stereotypes. Furthermore, this study also investigatedwhether the three polar bears differed in their behavioural reaction norms, behavioural instability, and behavioural diversity. No differences were found in behavioural reaction norms between the enrichment days and control days, except for, the skewness and kurtosis. The mother bear was observed to have more stereotypical behaviour than her cubs, which correlated well with her low behavioural diversity index. A significant difference in behavioural reaction norms was found between the mother and her cubs although, there was no difference between the cubs’ reaction norms. So, no significant differences in behavioural reaction normsand behavioural instability were found between thetwo cubs.

Enrichment study in three captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus) at Aalborg Zoo

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are vulnerable to environmental changes, which often leads to the development of stereotypical behaviour in captivity.Multiple studies hadshownthat the usage of enrichment could reduce stereotypicalbehaviour in captive animals thereby, improving their welfare. When choosing enrichments,it is necessary to examine the individual personalities, since differences in behavioural reaction norms of the medianscould lead to different preferences among animals regarding the types of enrichment used.This study investigated the behaviour of three polar bears (one adult female and her two cubs)at Aalborg Zoo and whether different types of enrichment would have an impact on their behaviour and reduce stereotypes. Furthermore, this study also investigatedwhether the three polar bears differed in their behavioural reaction norms, behavioural instability, and behavioural diversity. No differences were found in behavioural reaction norms between the enrichment days and control days, except for, the skewness and kurtosis. The mother bear was observed to have more stereotypical behaviour than her cubs, which correlated well with her low behavioural diversity index. A significant difference in behavioural reaction norms was found between the mother and her cubs although, there was no difference between the cubs’ reaction norms. So, no significant differences in behavioural reaction normsand behavioural instability were found between thetwo cubs.

Environmental enrichment during early rearing provokes epigenetic changes in the brain of a salmonid fish

Environmental enrichment is used to increase structural complexity of captive rearing systems and has been shown to provoke a wide range of effects in the kept animals. Here we studied the effects of enrichment on DNA methylation patterns at the whole-genome level in the brain of rainbow trout reared in an aquaculture setting. We investigated the epigenetic effects between different types of enrichment (natural substrate vs. artificial substrate vs. barren) in three developmental stages (egg vs. alevin vs. fry) and as enrichment was discontinued at the fingerling stage by means of the Methylation-Sensitive Amplified Polymorphism (MSAP) technique. While enrichment did not affect growth in body size, we found enrichment to affected global DNA methylation in the brain at the egg and alevin stage, i.e., the period during development where the animals are in close physical contact with the substrate. At these stages, trout reared on the two substrates differed more from the control than the substrates differed from each other. Only minor differences between rearing environments were detected following emergence at the fry stage. When enrichment was discontinued during the rearing of fingerlings, no differences in DNA methylation patterns were observed between the rearing environments. Our results provide further evidence on the effects of enrichment in the captive rearing of fish and show that enrichment can even modulate epigenetic patterns. The effect on the epigenome may be causal for the previously reported effects of enrichment on gene expression, behaviour and brain development.

Adaptive Enrichment Designs in Clinical Trials.

Adaptive enrichment designs for clinical trials may include rules that use interim data to identify treatment-sensitive patient subgroups, select or compare treatments, or change entry criteria. A common setting is a trial to compare a new biologically targeted agent to standard therapy. An enrichment design's structure depends on its goals, how it accounts for patient heterogeneity and treatment effects, and practical constraints. This article first covers basic concepts, including treatment-biomarker interaction, precision medicine, selection bias, and sequentially adaptive decision making, and briefly describes some different types of enrichment. Numerical illustrations are provided for qualitatively different cases involving treatment-biomarker interactions. Reviews are given of adaptive signature designs; a Bayesian design that uses a random partition to identify treatment-sensitive biomarker subgroups and assign treatments; and designs that enrich superior treatment sample sizes overall or within subgroups, make subgroup-specific decisions, or include outcome-adaptive randomization.

Assessment of Abnormal Behaviour and the Effect of Enrichment on Captive Chimpanzees in Aalborg Zoo

Studies have suggested that chimpanzees and other primates in captivity tend to develop abnormal behaviours if they are housed without proper enrichment. The purpose of this study was to get a better understanding of the behaviour of chimpanzees in captivity in Aalborg Zoo, Denmark. This was done by examining whether the individuals displayed abnormal behaviour and whether the enrichment provided would affect the display of abnormal behaviour and other examined behaviours. Furthermore, it was assessed whether the age of the chimpanzee would affect the amount of time spent on enrichment. The assessed behaviours were abnormal, passive, play, climbing, walking and/or running, foraging, food and water ingestion, grooming another, receiving grooming, mutual grooming, and self-grooming, while enrichment included a mirror, televisions, toys, and balls. The chimpanzees were recorded for 20 hours over the course of 5 days in the control week, and 20 hours over the course of 5 days in the enrichment week in autumn 2019. The results showed that the enrichment provided did not lead to any significant change in the behaviours observed in the four chimpanzees. The results also showed that all chimpanzees displayed abnormal behaviour, but also that none of the observed chimpanzees interacted significantly more with the enrichment, based on age. It could be concluded that none of the four different types of enrichment had any significant effect on the observed behaviours. The study shows that it is important to evaluate the effects of new enrichments.

Damaging Behaviour and Associated Lesions in Relation to Types of Enrichment for Finisher Pigs on Commercial Farms.

Simple SummaryEU legislation states that all pigs must have access to material that allows them to perform investigation and manipulation activities. This reduces the risk of pigs performing damaging behaviours (e.g., tail, ear and flank biting). The aim of this study was to determine associations between damaging behaviours performed by finisher pigs, the related lesions and the use of different types of enrichment. Finisher pigs were observed on 31 commercial pig farms in Ireland and the number of pigs affected by tail, ear and flank lesions as well as all occurrences of damaging behaviour (tail-, ear- and flank-directed behaviour) were recorded. The type (chain, plastic or wood) of enrichment provided was noted; chains were the most common (41.4% of farms), followed by plastic (37.9%) and wood (20.7%). Damaging behaviour was more frequent on farms that provided chains compared to plastic or wood, particularly tail- and flank-directed behaviour was affected. The prevalence of lesions tended to be higher on farms where chains were provided compared to wooden enrichment devices. This was due to a higher prevalence of mild tail lesions on farms using chains. Results suggest that despite chains being commonly used, they did not fulfill their role in reducing damaging behaviours and associated lesions in finisher pigs.EU legislation states that all pigs must have access to material that allows them to perform investigation and manipulation activities, thereby reducing the risk of pigs performing damaging behaviours (e.g., tail, ear and flank biting). We aimed to determine associations between damaging behaviours performed by finisher pigs, the related lesions and the use of different types of enrichment. Six randomly selected pens of finisher pigs were observed for 10 min each on 31 commercial pig farms in Ireland. All pigs were counted and the number of pigs affected by tail, ear and flank lesions was recorded. During the last 5 min, all occurrences of damaging behaviour (tail-, ear- and flank-directed behaviour) were recorded. The type (chain, plastic or wood) and number of accessible enrichment objects/pen was recorded. Chains were the most common (41.4% of farms), followed by plastic (37.9%) and wood (20.7%). Damaging behaviour was more frequent on farms that provided chains compared to plastic or wood. Farms with chains were associated with a higher frequency of flank-directed behaviour and tended to be associated with a higher frequency of tail-directed behaviour compared to farms that provided plastic devices. The prevalence of lesions tended to be higher on farms where chains were provided compared to wooden enrichment devices, mostly driven by a difference in the prevalence of mild tail lesions. Results support expert opinions that despite being commonly used, chains did not fulfill a role in reducing damaging behaviours and associated lesions in finisher pigs compared to other forms of enrichment.

Patterns of animal-enrichment interaction in captive brown bears.

We studied the behavioral responses of three brown bears (Ursus arctos) to different types of enrichment devices to assess the predominant pattern of animal-enrichment interaction (PAI) to each type of enrichment. We assessed the bears' responses to feeding, sensory, and occupational enrichments over nine sessions. Using Pearson's correlation (r) and the coefficient of variation (CV)-we describe four models of PAIs: habituation, increasing, continuous, and fluctuating. The habituation model (r < 0 and p < 0.05; CV (%) > 0) consists of a loss of interest in the device over time and it occurred with the occupational device. The increasing model (r > 0 and p < 0.05; CV (%) > 0) consists of a sustained interest in the device over time and it was not observed for any device of this study. The continuous model (0 > r > 0 and p > 0.05; CV (%) < 100) consists of a consistent and unchanging interaction over time and it occurred with the feeding enrichments used in this study. The fluctuating PAI (0 > r > 0 and p > 0.05; CV (%) ≥ 100) consists of wide oscillations in the degree of interaction over time and we observed this pattern with sensory devices. Review of previous literature supports these classes of PAI, and suggests similar relationships between PAIs and the type of enrichment as we observed in this study.

Examining the Impact of Naturalistic and Unnaturalistic Environmental Enrichment on Visitor Perception of Naturalness, Animal Welfare, and Conservation

ABSTRACTRecent research shows that using different types of enrichment has little to no impact on how zoo visitors perceive the animals or the enclosure in general. The primary objective of the current research was to examine if viewing naturalistic-looking environmental enrichment (NEE) and unnaturalistic-looking environmental enrichment (UEE) has an effect on visitor perceptions of exhibit naturalness, animal welfare, and conservation, while controlling for two factors that can influence visitor perspective: animal visibility and behavior. Study 1 examined the color of enrichment: the NEE was colored to resemble a rock and the UEE was fluorescent pink. Four conditions were recorded: Naturalistic/No Animal, Naturalistic/Animal, Unnaturalistic/No Animal, and Unnaturalistic/Animal. One video was shown to 306 randomly selected visitors who then took a survey including questions on animal welfare, exhibit naturalness, and supporting conservation organizations. Naturalistic/No Animal was perceived by visitors to be the most natural environment and the best of the exhibits for an animal to live in. Study 2 examined different types of NEE and UEE. Eight photos (four with an animal and four without) showing one out of four enrichment items (naturalistic rock, wood wool bedding, traffic cone, cardboard box) were shown to 618 randomly selected visitors who then took a survey similar to study 1. Visitors rated the photos with the NEE consistently higher for questions regarding the naturalness of the exhibit, good animal welfare, and the livability of the environment. Visitors were also asked to rank the four enrichment items from best to worst, and the NEEs were ranked significantly higher than the UEEs. While there are still many unanswered questions regarding visitor perceptions of environmental enrichment in zoos, we hope that focusing on one variant such as color and examining different types of NEE and UEE can help guide future studies on this subject.

Keepers' rating of emotions in captive big cats, and their use in determining responses to different types of enrichment

Abstract Effective identification of emotional states in captive big cats by keepers is important for them to be able to reduce the risks of abnormal behavior by providing appropriate enrichment strategies. In an initial study, 29 emotional states in each of 4 cheetahs were rated daily by 5 keepers. Three emotional state domains were identified, apparently associated with nervousness, adventurousness, and aggression. Keepers then rated each cheetah on these domains daily for a mean of 18 days. Consistent differences in scores between keepers and between cheetahs were identified, with aggression being the least variable domain. In a second study with 9 tigers and 9 keepers, 4 emotional state domains were similarly identified from keeper ratings, apparently related to aggression, fear, vigilance, and obedience. Keeper ratings of these domains before and after the tigers' period in night quarters were used, together with video-recorded behavior in the first and last 90 minutes in night quarters, to evaluate the effect of 3 enrichments, 2 olfactory, 1 physical (coffee essence, fish smears, and palm leaves) offered in the night enclosures. There were no overall differences in the emotional state domains of the tigers between the 3 enrichments, as assessed by the keepers, although the video-records of behavior showed that tigers that received fish smears paced less (37% of time ±3.1%) than those receiving coffee essence (48% of time, ±3.1%) or palm leaves (50 % of time, ±3.1%). It is concluded that keepers can consistently rate big cats' emotions, but it is uncertain whether their ratings are adequate to determine appropriate enrichment strategies for individual felids to minimize abnormal behaviors.

Neutronic analysis and validation of boiling water reactor core designed by MCNPX code

This paper presents a design of boiling water reactor BWR model using MCNPX to develop benchmarks for checking the fuel management computer code packages. MCNPX code based on Monte Carlo method, is used to design a three dimensional model for BWR fuel assembly in typical operating temperature and pressure conditions. A test case was compared with a benchmark problem and good agreement was found. This design is used to study the thermal neutron flux and the pin by pin power distribution through the BWR core assemblies. The fuel used in BWR core is UO2 with three different types of enrichment (0.711%, 1.76% and 2.19%). This enrichment is distributed in such a way as to flatten the power. The effect of different enrichment values on the radial normalized power distribution is analyzed. The spent fuel in the reactor can be recycled, and plutonium and its isotopes can be extracted.

Efficacy of foraging enrichments to increase foraging time in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus)

Foraging enrichment is considered one of the most effective strategies to improve welfare and reduce stereotypies and other abnormal repetitive behaviours in captive animals, including parrots. Few studies, however, have investigated the effects of the different types of enrichment and determined their effect on increasing foraging times and foraging-related activities.To study the effect of different types of enrichment on foraging activity, eleven types of foraging enrichment [multiple bowls, mixing food with inedible items, larger-sized food particles, and 8 puzzle feeders] were tested in 12 Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). After acclimatization and assessment of baseline foraging times, enrichments were presented in a random order. Video recordings were used to analyze total foraging times and times spent on the different foraging activities. In addition, the frequencies and duration of foraging bouts, and the times at which they occurred, were determined. The learning curves and presence of habituation to the enrichment over a 1-week period were also assessed.Parrots needed 8.3±1.1 days to learn how to use the foraging enrichments. For two of the puzzle feeders, it took considerably longer. Nine out of eleven foraging enrichments were able to significantly increase foraging times, with the most effective enrichments resulting in a 2- to 2.5-fold increase compared to baseline values (47±18min). The increases in time spent on foraging could be attributed to an increased amount of time spent on enrichment-related activities and/or an increased amount of time spent on food-related activities. None of the enrichments (including the use of multiple bowls in different locations) resulted in significant increases in time spent on locomotory behaviours (i.e. movement towards or away from the feeding site). No significant downwards trends in foraging times were observed over the 1-week observation period. The duration of the observations may, however, have been too short to demonstrate habituation effects.Results of this study show that distinct differences are present in the difficulty level, efficacy and time allocation, thereby affecting the choice for a particular foraging enrichment. Although most of the foraging enrichments were able to significantly increase foraging time, none of the enrichments were able to increase foraging times to levels comparable with that of wild conspecifics (i.e. 4–6hours per day). New, more effective types of foraging enrichment should therefore be developed and tested.

Environmental enrichment and practical applications for welfare in production agriculture.

Abstract Environmental enrichment refers to stimuli that are added to an animal's environment in an attempt to improve biological functioning and animal welfare by increasing the complexity of the environment and providing opportunities for the animal to perform species-appropriate activities. Enrichments are often provided to help decrease or alleviate performance of abnormal behaviour patterns that are often found in barren and static environments. Enrichments can be divided into four categories: foraging opportunities, structural complexity, sensory stimulation/novelty and social stimulation from conspecifics or humans. However, different species have different behavioural requirements and therefore may benefit from different types of enrichment. To summarize the research that has been conducted on environmental enrichment, tables have been created for some of the more common production species, which give examples of enrichments that can be used and the potential benefits and costs found from implementing them. In general, most species seem to benefit from the provision of a foraging substrate/bedding, places to hide/dividers/platforms and access to conspecifics. However, most enrichment studies are performed on a much smaller scale than normally found in production environments; therefore the full benefits and costs of the enrichment may not yet be known. Practically, enrichments should improve animal welfare and satisfy behavioural needs while being inexpensive, available and easy to maintain for the producer. The development of improved welfare brands that require certain enrichment items should help improve the lives of production animals and help guide producers on the environmental enrichments to provide for their animals.

Enrichment materials do not negatively affect reproductive success and offspring survival and weight in mice

Environmental enrichment is designed to improve the overall welfare of laboratory animals, including mice. Few studies have directly assessed the effects of different types of enrichment on mouse offspring survival and growth. The authors examined how survival and growth of C57BL/6 mouse pups are affected by three kinds of cage enrichment materials: compressed cotton squares, two-ply tissues and plastic igloos. During the last week of gestation and the first two weeks postpartum, the authors observed cages with litters and noted use of the enrichment materials, quality of nest construction, number of pups per litter and weight of pups. Both the first and second litters were evaluated for each dam. Dams and pups had continuous contact with the enrichment materials, especially cotton squares and tissues. Neither the presence nor the type of enrichment material influenced the survival and weight of offspring, suggesting that the use of such materials does not negatively impact reproductive success or offspring survival.

Environmental enrichment for primates in laboratories

Abstract. Environmental enrichment is a critical component of Refinement, one of the 3Rs underlying humane experimentation on animals. In this paper I discuss why primates housed in laboratories, which often have constraints of space and study protocols, are a special case for enrichment. I outline a framework for categorising the different types of enrichment, using the marmoset as a case study, and summarise the methods used to determine what animals want/prefer. I briefly review the arguments that enrichment does not negatively affect experimental outcomes. Finally I focus on complexity and novelty, choice and control, the underlying features of enrichment that makes it successful, and how combined with a thorough understanding of natural history we can put effective enrichment into practice in laboratories. Throughout the paper I emphasise the need to evaluate enrichment to ensure it is having the desired effect.

The effect of different types of enrichment on the behaviour of cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus) in captivity

Enrichment, in the form of changes to the structure and content of enclosures, in addition to changes to husbandry practice, have been used on a range of felids resulting in increased activity levels and decreased levels of pacing behaviour. It is important to determine what types of enrichment are effective for individual species in captivity. The aim of this research was to test the effect of three different enrichment treatments on the behaviour of cheetahs at Fota Wildlife Park, Ireland. The three treatments; temporal variation in feeding, spatial variation in feeding and olfactory enrichment using scimitar-horned oryx ( Oryx dammah) faeces were chosen to provide a degree of novelty and unpredictability to the captive environment, with the goal of decreasing pacing while increasing active and exploratory behaviours. Following baseline data collection, treatments were introduced to the five cheetah enclosures according to a schedule, with each treatment being carried out for five days followed by a 14-day post-treatment (PT) period prior to the next treatment being introduced. A Friedmann ANOVA was carried out to test if the schedule of enrichment treatments had an effect on cheetah behaviour. Vigilance behaviour was observed less frequently during treatment and post-treatment phases (4.1–9.5%) compared with the baseline observations (11.1%). Exploratory behaviour fluctuated with the highest level occurring during the olfactory enrichment treatment. There was a trend for pacing to decrease during enrichment treatments. A range of behaviours were also significantly affected at different times of the day by the schedule of treatments. The results were similar to previous enrichment studies on other felids suggesting that the use of these types of enrichment can be an effective form of enrichment for cheetahs in captivity. Individual groups also reacted differently to the enrichment treatments, suggesting that enrichment can have varying effects on behaviour of captive cheetahs depending on group identity and configuration. The schedule of treatments, punctuated by the return to baseline conditions, is also cited as having an enriching effect. Due to different behaviours being affected at different times of day, the question was raised about the use of specific enrichments during periods of time when abnormal behaviour is prevalent. Research on the behavioural effects of a randomised enrichment treatment schedule, rather than a sequential one used in this study may be of benefit, in order to separate the effects of the schedule and the treatments.