Differences In Risk-taking Behavior Research Articles

The interaction between cortisol and testosterone predicts leadership within rock hyrax social groups

Group movement leadership is associated with higher risks for those in the front. Leaders are the first to explore new areas and may be exposed to predation. Individual differences in risk-taking behavior may be related to hormonal differences. In challenging circumstances, such as risk-taking leadership that may pose a cost to the leader, cortisol is secreted both to increase the likelihood of survival by restoring homeostasis, and to mediate cooperative behavior. Testosterone too has a well-established role in risk-taking behavior, and the dual-hormone hypothesis posits that the interaction of testosterone and cortisol can predict social behavior. Based on the dual-hormone hypothesis, we investigated here whether the interaction between testosterone and cortisol can predict risk-taking leadership behavior in wild rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis). We used proximity loggers, observations, and playback trials to characterize hyrax leaders in three different leadership contexts that varied in their risk levels. In support of the dual-hormone hypothesis, we found that cortisol and testosterone interactions predict leadership that involves risk. Across different circumstances that involved low or high levels of risk, testosterone was positively related to leadership, but only in individuals (both males and females) with low levels of cortisol. We also found an interaction between these hormone levels and age at the low-risk scenarios. We suggest that the close social interactions and affiliative behavior among hyrax females within small egalitarian groups may make female leadership less risky, and therefore less stressful, and allow female leaders to influence group activities.

Exploring behavioral traits over different contexts in four species of Australian funnel-web spiders.

Australian funnel-web spiders are arguably the most venomous spiders in the world, with much research focusing on this aspect of their biology. However, other aspects related to their life history, ecology and behaviour have been overlooked. For the first time, we assessed repeatability, namely risk-taking behaviour, aggressiveness and activity in the contexts of predation, conspecific tolerance and exploration of a new territory in four species of Australian funnel-web spiders: two are closely related, Hadronyche valida and H. infensa, and two have overlapping distributions but occupy different habitats, H. cerberea and Atrax robustus. We also compared behaviors between species. At the species level, we found that H. valida showed consistency in risk-taking behavior when exposed to a predator stimulus, aggressiveness against conspecifics, and exploration of a new territory. In contrast, in the other species, only A. robustus showed repeatability in the context of exploration of a new territory. These results suggest that some behavioral traits are likely more flexible than others, and that the repeatability of behaviors may be species-specific in funnel-webs. When we compared species, we found differences in risk-taking behavior and defensiveness. This study provides novel insights to understanding variation in behavioral traits within and between species of funnel-web spiders, suggesting that some behavioral traits are likely context and/or species dependent, as a result of their evolutionary history. These findings provide key insights for understanding the ecological role of behavior and venom deployment in venomous animals, and a greater understanding of behavior in these medically significant and iconic spiders that are of conservation concern.

Examining sex disparities in risk/reward trade-offs in Smith's zokors, Eospalax smithii

Risk taking is imperative for the survival and fitness of animals since they are constantly facing innumerable threats from various sources. Indeed, the ability of the individual to balance the costs and benefits of various options and adopt a wise decision is critical for the animal well-being. We modified several traditionally used anxiety tests [The modified light-dark box (mLDB), the modified open field test (mOFT) and the modified defensive withdrawal apparatus (mDWA)] by adding a palatable food reward within the anxiogenic zone which granted us to assess the sex differences in risk-taking behavior in Smith's zokors (Eospalax smithii), a typical subterranean rodent species endemic to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Concomitant with our working hypothesis, female zokors showed strong aversion and avoidance behavioral responses when tested in the mOFT and mDWA while there were no apparent sexually dimorphic behavioral changes when they were tested in the mLDB (Except for the percentage of food consumed and the latency till start feeding). Furthermore, comparison between the three behavioral paradigms revealed that both sexes showed different behavioral responses toward the different behavioral tests. Sex differences in repeatable behaviors were more profound in females than males. This might reflect different degrees of risk perception and emotionality that may differ considerably between the different models of anxiety. Our results highlighted the functional significance of a trade-off between risk and incentives in natural environment that both male and female zokors differ in the processing of risk assessment in the presence of a food reward.

Transcriptomic profiles of consistent risk-taking behaviour across time and contexts in European sea bass.

Bolder individuals have greater access to food sources and reproductive partners but are also at increased risk of predation. Boldness is believed to be consistent across time and contexts, but few studies have investigated the stability of this trait across variable environments, such as varying stress loads or long periods of time. Moreover, the underlying molecular components of boldness are poorly studied. Here, we report that boldness of 1154 European sea bass, evaluated using group risk-taking tests, is consistent over seven months and for individuals subjected to multiple environments, including a chronically stressful environment. Differences in risk-taking behaviour were further supported by differences observed in the responses to a novel environment test: shy individuals displayed more group dispersion, more thigmotaxic behaviour and lower activity levels. Transcriptomic analyses performed on extreme phenotypes revealed that bold individuals display greater expression for genes involved in social and exploration behaviours, and memory in the pituitary, and genes involved in immunity and responses to stimuli in the head kidney. This study demonstrates that personality traits come with an underpinning molecular signature, especially in organs involved in the endocrine and immune systems. As such, our results help to depict state-behaviour feedback mechanisms, previously proposed as key in shaping animal personality.

Bold Behavior Is Associated with Genes That Regulate Energy Use but Does Not Covary with Body Condition in Food-Restricted Snails.

AbstractTheoretical models about the relationship between food restriction and individual differences in risk-taking behavior (i.e., boldness) have led to conflicting predictions: some models predict that food restriction increases boldness, while other models predict that food restriction decreases boldness. This discrepancy may be partially attributable to an underappreciation for animals' complex physiological responses to food restriction. To understand the proximate mechanisms mediating state-dependent boldness, we used freshwater snails (Helisoma trivolvis) to examine the relationships among food availability, body condition, boldness (latency to reemerge from shell and exploration), and mRNA expression of three genes (adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase [AMPK], molluscan insulin-like peptide [MIP], and serotonin receptor [5-HT]) involved in maintaining energy homeostasis during periods of moderate food restriction. Latency to reemerge and exploratory behavior decreased over time, but fed snails were bolder than fasted snails, suggesting that food restriction reduces bold behavior. Although food restriction decreased body condition, there was not a relationship between body condition and latency to reemerge from shell. However, expression of MIP was positively correlated with latency to reemerge from shell. Furthermore, AMPK was positively correlated with MIP and negatively correlated with body condition and 5-HT. Therefore, individual differences in physiological responses to food restriction, not overall body condition per se, appear to be more closely associated with state-dependent bold behavior. Finally, snails that experienced a novel assay environment returned to their initial "shy" behavior, suggesting that habituation to the assay environment may contribute to snails expressing bolder behavior over time.

ANALYSIS OF SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH RISK PREFERENCES OF ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Although the Zimbabwean government launched an Adolescent and Youth Sexual and Reproductive Health policy in 2010, HIV prevalence and incidence among youth remains amongst the highest in sub-Saharan Africa. Zimbabwean Youths in tertiary education institutions exhibit high-risk sexual behaviours. The study aimed to estimate the risk preference parameters of youths in a tertiary education setting to understand their risky behaviour better using prospect theory. It involved 250 students completing a socioeconomic questionnaire and making a choice from over three series of pairwise lottery questions framed around sexual and reproductive health prevention interventions. The study used bivariate techniques to examine differences in risk-taking behaviour. Ordinary least squares and interval regression techniques determined the socioeconomic determinants of the risk behaviour function. The study established an average risk aversion parameter of 0.7 and a probability weighting parameter of 0.8. The probability weighting parameter implies that the participants were more focused on the outcomes with less concern for their likelihood. The study estimated the loss aversion parameter at 2.26, which indicates the need to reduce loss-framed messages in favour of positively framed awareness campaigns. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses showed that income, prior sexual and reproductive health knowledge and alcoholism were associated with risk and loss aversion. We recommend positive framing of youth sexual and reproductive health awareness campaigns. We also recommend youth economic emancipation to increase economic prospects which in turn improves reference points which changes the viewing of health interventions and outcomes from the loss domain to gain domain.

Daily activity rhythms, chronotypes, and risk-taking behavior in the signal crayfish.

Consistent inter-individual differences in daily activity rhythms (i.e., chronotypes) can have ecological consequences in determining access to food resources and avoidance of predators. The most common measure to characterize chronotypes in animals as well as humans is the onset of activity (i.e., early or late chronotypes). However, daily activity rhythms may also differ in the relative amount of activity displayed at particular time periods. Moreover, chronotypes may also be linked to other consistent inter-individual differences in behavior (i.e., personality), such as the propensity to take risks. Here, we used the signal crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus to test the presence of chronotypes and risk-taking personality traits and a potential behavioral syndrome between these traits. We first exposed crayfish to 5 days of light–darkness to measure daily activity rhythms and then we applied a visual predator-simulating stimulus in 2 different contexts (neutral and food). Our results showed consistent (i.e., across 5 days) inter-individual differences in the relative nocturnal activity displayed in the early and middle, but not in the late part of darkness hours. Moreover, while crayfish displayed inter-individual differences in risk-taking behavior, these were not found to be consistent across 2 contexts. Therefore, we were not able to formally test a behavioral syndrome between these 2 traits. In conclusion, our study provides the first evidence of chronotypes in the relative amount of activity displayed at particular time periods. This could be a valuable information for applied ecological aspects related to the signal crayfish, which is a major invasive species of freshwater ecosystems.

Gender-based differences in risk-taking behaviors among high school students in Southeast Iran.

Risk-taking behaviors among adolescents can negatively affect different dimensions of their health. This study was conducted to identify the gender-based differences in risk-taking behaviors among high school students in a Muslim population. Grade 10 students studying in high schools located in Kerman Province, Iran were enrolled through cluster sampling (n=2,676), and data were collected using a well-validated questionnaire about violence, sexual behaviors, and traffic-related conduct over the past 12 months. The tool also consisted questions regarding drug use over the past 30 days and over lifetime (i.e., current and ever use of drugs, respectively). The number of female participants was 1,407 (52.6%). The boys who had girlfriends (33.0%) were almost twice as many as the girls who had boyfriends (17.1%). Among the respondents, 27.8 and 12.0% of the boys and girls engaged in physical fighting, respectively. Overall, the prevalence of water pipe use in the last 30 days (18.7%) and over lifetime (43.5%) was higher than that of the consumption of other substances. The second and third most popular substances used in the past 30 days among boys and girls were alcohol and cigarettes and cigarettes and alcohol, respectively. On the whole, marijuana figured in the lowest lifetime use among the respondents. The rate of risk-taking behaviors in female students was lower than in males, and this difference was more evident than in Western countries. This discrepancy seems to be more obvious in cases where the religious prohibition of a behavior is greater such as extramarital intimacy.

Who dies early? Education, mortality and causes of death in Norway

We estimated the effects of education on mortality and causes of death in Norway. We identified causal effects by exploiting the staggered implementation of a school reform that increased the length of compulsory education from seven to nine years. The municipality-level education data were combined with complete records of all deaths from 1960 to 2015 from the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry. These data covered the entire life span of persons aged 16–64.One additional year of education caused a reduction in mortality of about 10% for men. The effect was negligible for women. For men, a large part of the effect was due to fewer accidental deaths. We suggest two explanations for this finding. First, there are differences in risk-taking behaviour between people with a high level of education and those with a low level. Second, more education leads to upward occupational mobility. This mobility is mainly from occupations for which the risk of accidents is high to occupations for which the risk is low. Our results supported the fundamental cause theory. This is because education had a stronger effect on mortality for causes of death that are preventable than for causes of death that are not preventable. More education had no effect on the probability of dying of diseases that were amenable to medical intervention only. This gives some support to our results that patients are treated equally, independent of their level of education. This may be due to the large public involvement in financing and provision of health services.

Enhanced methamphetamine-induced conditioned place preference in risk-taking rats

Patients with psychiatric disorders, such as gambling and substance use, tend to exhibit maladaptive decision-making. In this study, we assessed individual differences in risk-taking behaviors using a rat gambling task (GT) and investigated the relationship between risk-taking behaviors and vulnerability to drug dependence using methamphetamine (METH)-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). In the GT using a radial arm maze, male Long-Evans rats were trained to choose one of three choice arms (a low-risk/low reward (L-L), a high-risk/high reward (H-H), and an empty arm) in 16 trials per day for 14 days. METH-induced CPP consisted of 6 sessions: habituation, conditioning, preference test (Test I), extinction, extinction test (Test II), and reinstatement test (Test III). Results demonstrated that the percentage of choosing the H-H arm was significantly positively correlated with the percentage of time spent in the METH-paired compartment in the preference test, but not with the extinction and reinstatement tests, suggesting that risk-taking rats are more vulnerable to drug dependence.

Limited Bedding and Nesting Induces Maternal Behavior Resembling Both Hypervigilance and Abuse.

Early life adversity (ELA) is associated with altered neural development and increased risk for the development of psychopathology across the lifespan. Rodent models of ELA are an important tool for investigating the possible mechanistic underpinnings of pathology development. We used a limited bedding and nesting model (LBN) to induce stress in the dam and alter dam-pup interactions during a sensitive period in early postnatal development. The primary characteristics previously identified in this model include fragmented and unpredictable maternal care and possibly neglect. However, previous studies have not considered the effects of this manipulation over the full circadian cycle and the evolution of changes of maternal behavior throughout the duration of the manipulation. In the current study, we leverage a novel continuous video monitoring setup to unobtrusively observe and subsequently analyze maternal behaviors. Through this more in-depth analysis, we discovered that LBN dams spent more time than control dams on their nest, returned to their nest more frequently than control dams, and showed intact maternal care. Importantly, a subset of LBN dams (~40%) engaged in abusive-like kicking, a behavioral pattern not previously identified in this paradigm. Exposure to ELA and abusive-like kicking were associated with differences in risk-taking behavior in adulthood. The LBN model of ELA may drive a more complex constellation of effects on maternal behavior driving a pattern of increased dam-pup interactions and increased abuse-like kicking behavior, with unique consequences for pup outcomes.

Depression, Risk Preferences and Risk-Taking Behavior

Depression affects the way that people process information and make decisions, including those involving risk and uncertainty. Our objective is to analyze the way that depressive episodes shape risk preferences and risk-taking behaviors. We are the first to address this issue using large-scale, representative panel data that include both behavioral and stated risk preference measures and a theoretical framework that accounts for the multiple pathways through which depression affects risk-taking. We find no disparity in the behavioral risk preferences of the mentally well vs. depressed; yet depression is related to people's stated risk preferences and risk-taking behaviors in ways that are context-specific. Those who are likely to be experiencing a depressive episode report less willingness to take risks in general, but more willingness to take health risks, for example. We investigate these patterns by developing a conceptual model – informed by the psychological literature – that links depression to risk-taking behavior through the key elements of a standard intertemporal choice problem (e.g., time preferences, expectations, budget constraints). This motivates a mediation analysis in which we show that differences in risk-taking behavior are largely explained by depression-related disparities in behavioral traits such as locus of control, optimism and trust. Overall, we find that there is no overarching tendency for those who are depressive to engage in either more or less risk-taking. Instead, the decision-making context matters in ways that largely align with our theoretical expectations.

Female Workers, Male Managers: Gender, Leadership, and Risk-Taking

This study examines gender differences in risk-taking behavior among managers in a female-dominated industry. Using data from international top-level women's soccer, we provide evidence that male coaches show a lower level of risk-taking than female coaches on average. We also find a U-shaped age effect that is independent of gender, meaning that young and more mature individuals tend to take riskier decisions. Our main results therefore strongly contrast with the majority of previous studies on gender differences in risk preferences, and thereby emphasize the importance of considering the industrial environment. Underlying selection processes may play an important role. We find no correlation between the gender gap in risk-taking and female empowerment defined by national gender equality scores.

Family Ownership, Women in Top Management and Risk Taking: Evidence from Indonesia

Family firms were widely recognized to have a substantial contribution to the economy, especially in emerging economies. However, some previous studies reveal that family firms tend to be conservative and unwilling to take more risks. We extended the literature by investigating whether there was a difference in risk-taking behavior between family and non-family firms in the context of Indonesia. Moreover, the presence of women in the top management also considered negatively correlated with risk-taking strategy. Therefore, this study empirically examined the effects of family ownership and women in top management on a risk-taking strategy of firms. Using data of 336 publicly traded firms in Indonesia over 2012-2016, this study confirmed the negative effect of family ownership and women in top management on corporate risk-taking. Family ownership and involvement as the CEO of the firms negatively associated with the level of risk taking. Moreover, our results reveal that the presence of women was a matter more to decrease corporate risk-taking when they served in the board of directors rather than in the board of commissioners. JEL Classification: G32, M14 DOI : https://doi.org/10.26905/jkdp.v22i4.2452

Novel insights from the Yellow Light Game: Safe and risky decisions differentially impact adolescent outcome-related brain function

Changes across the span of adolescence in the adolescent reward system are thought to increase the tendency to take risks. While developmental differences in decision and outcome-related reward processes have been studied extensively, existing paradigms have largely neglected to measure how different types of decisions modulate reward-related outcome processes. We modified an existing decision-making paradigm (the Stoplight Task; Chein et al., 2011) to create a flexible laboratory measure of decision-making and outcome processing, including the ability to assess modulatory effects of safe versus risky decisions on reward-related outcome processes: the Yellow Light Game (YLG). We administered the YLG in the MRI scanner to 81 adolescents, ages 11–17 years, recruited from the community. Results showed that nucleus accumbens activation was enhanced for (1) risky > safe decisions, (2) positive > negative outcomes, and (3) outcomes following safe decisions compared to outcomes following risky decisions, regardless of whether these outcomes were positive or negative. Outcomes following risky decisions (compared to outcomes following safe decisions) were associated with enhanced activity in cortical midline structures. Furthermore, while there were no developmental differences in risk-taking behavior, more pubertally mature adolescents showed enhanced nucleus accumbens activation during positive > negative outcomes. These findings suggest that outcome processing is modulated by the types of decisions made by adolescents and highlight the importance of investigating processes involved in safe as well as risky decisions to better understand the adolescent tendency to take risks.

State-dependent risk-taking.

Who takes risks, and when? The relative state model proposes two non-independent selection pressures governing risk-taking: need-based and ability-based. The need-based account suggests that actors take risks when they cannot reach target states with low-risk options (consistent with risk-sensitivity theory). The ability-based account suggests that actors engage in risk-taking when they possess traits or abilities that increase the expected value of risk-taking (by increasing the probability of success, enhancing payoffs for success or buffering against failure). Adaptive risk-taking involves integrating both considerations. Risk-takers compute the expected value of risk-taking based on their state-the interaction of embodied capital relative to one's situation, to the same individual in other circumstances or to other individuals. We provide mathematical support for this dual pathway model, and show that it can predict who will take the most risks and when (e.g. when risk-taking will be performed by those in good, poor, intermediate or extreme state only). Results confirm and elaborate on the initial verbal model of state-dependent risk-taking: selection favours agents who calibrate risk-taking based on implicit computations of condition and/or competitive (dis)advantage, which in turn drives patterned individual differences in risk-taking behaviour.

Neural substrates of the influence of emotional cues on cognitive control in risk-taking adolescents

Adolescence is a period characterised by increases in risk-taking. This behaviour has been associated with an imbalance in the integration of the networks involved in cognitive control and motivational processes. We examined whether the influence of emotional cues on cognitive control differs between adolescents who show high or low levels of risk-taking behaviour. Participants who scored especially high or low on a risky decision task were subsequently administered an emotional go/no-go fMRI task comprising angry, happy and calm faces. Both groups showed decreased cognitive control when confronted with appetitive and aversive emotional cues. Activation in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) increased in line with the cognitive control demands of the task. Though the risk taking groups did not differ in their behavioural performance, functional connectivity analyses revealed the dorsal striatum plays a more central role in the processing of cognitive control in high than low risk-takers. Overall, these findings suggest that variance in fronto-striatal circuitry may underlie individual differences in risk-taking behaviour.

Assessment of Male Physical Risk-Taking Behavior in a Sample of Russian Men and Women

Research has documented sex differences in risk-taking behavior, and young men in particular are more prone than women to engage in activities associated with physical risks. Evolutionary scientists have proposed that this sex difference is a consequence of male competition over mating opportunities. Thus, mating motives promote risk-taking in men more than in women. Here, we report analyses of assessments of male physical risk-taking in a Russian sample (n = 546). Men and women judged vignettes describing men who differed in risk-taking propensity for short- and long-term attractiveness, provisioning quality, and aggression. Risk-taking propensity had an effect on all attributes. Occasional (but not high) risk-takers received the highest ratings on short-term attractiveness. Low risk-takers were judged highest on long-term attractiveness and provisioning quality. High risk-takers were judged as more aggressive than occasional and low risk-takers. Thus, male risk-taking behavior affects assessments of male quality, but high risk-taking is not regarded as positive. We discuss the results with reference to evolutionary investigations of risk-taking behavior and cultural characteristics of masculinity ideology.

Health insurance subsidies and deductible choice: Evidence from regional variation in subsidy schemes

The extent to which premium subsidies can influence health insurance choices is an open question. In this paper, we explore the regional variation in subsidy schemes in Switzerland, designed as either in-kind or cash transfers, to study their impact on the choice of health insurance deductibles. Using health survey data and a difference-in-differences methodology, we find that in-kind transfers increase the likelihood of choosing a low deductible plan by approximately 4 percentage points (or 7%). Our results indicate that the response to in-kind transfers is strongest among women, middle-aged and unmarried individuals, which we explain by differences in risk-taking behavior, health status, financial constraints, health insurance and financial literacy. We discuss our results in the light of potential extra-marginal effects on the demand for health care services, which are however not supported by our data.

Exploring Different Types of Superstitious Beliefs in Risk-Taking Behaviors

Superstitions are common phenomena in human society, especially in Asian cultures. Superstitious beliefs can have a negative impact on the social well-being of people in society because they are highly associated with financial risk-taking and gambling behaviors. This study looks at the effects of different types of superstitious belief (proactive vs. passive) on consumers’ risk-taking behaviors. Categorized based on the characteristics associated with an illusion of control in a situation, proactive and passive superstitious beliefs were found to show differences in risk-taking behaviors. The results demonstrate that passive superstitious beliefs increase the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors when a superstitious object is introduced. The research suggests social marketing and public policy implications.