Differences In Choice Behavior Research Articles

Effect of Acute Alcohol Consumption in a Novel Rodent Model of Decision Making.

Alcohol use, especially at high consumption levels, can lead to irrational decision-making. In humans, this can lead to harmful outcomes often seen in the context of driving under the influence and or aggressive behavior. To date, the field is lacking comprehensive animal models to examine the impact of alcohol use on decision making in rodents, particularly to examine sex differences in choice behavior. To address this issue, the present study examined the effects of acute alcohol consumption during a behavioral approach-avoidance task that captures momentary changes in decision-making behavior and choice selection in female and male rats. Our team has developed a novel behavioral protocol involving a concurrent choice to consume four different concentrations of alcohol and sucrose combinations. During the task, female or male rats can approach or avoid drinking solutions in four distinct corners of our test apparatus. The solutions were prepared in inverse concentrations (higher sucrose was paired with lower alcohol and vice versa) so that the rodents pursue minimal alcohol use by consuming the higher sucrose concentrations or higher concentrations of alcohol by drinking the lower sucrose concentrations. The animals also have the option to avoid drinking alcohol by not approaching any of the drinking cups. Behavior and choice were tracked during task performance involving different solution concentrations of alcohol and sucrose. The choice of consuming different concentrations of alcohol or sucrose resulted in sex-dependent differences in an approach-avoid trade-off pattern of behavior that was sensitive to different concentrations of alcohol/sucrose combinations. Notably, males were greatly affected by the introduction of alcohol into the task environment, approaching higher alcohol concentrations significantly more often than the non-alcohol containing options. In contrast, females choice patterns and task performance were largely unchanged during alcohol and non-alcohol containing tasks. Regardless of sex, we identify a novel method for identifying individual subject decision-making abnormalities during and after alcohol consumption. This research reveals a novel approach for examining the effects of acute alcohol exposure during a trade-off task, with decision patterns being more impacted by alcohol use in males as compared to females. We also offer the field a novel approach for identifying individual abnormalities in decision making behavior with the presentation of alcohol. Future research can explore these abnormal patterns in both acute and chronic alcohol conditions to develop methods for identifying subjects at-risk for developing an alcohol use disorder and the deleterious impact of alcohol on rational decision making.

Individual differences in the discounting of combination outcomes in which immediate gains are followed by delayed losses.

The vast majority of studies on discounting have focused on simple delayed outcomes, but most everyday decisions are more complicated. The present experiment focused on one such scenario, an iconic self-control situation in which immediate gains are followed by delayed losses. The same participants were studied in all conditions to permit examination of individual differences in choice behavior using intercorrelations and factor analysis. Consistent with previous research, the hyperboloid model accurately described the form of the discounting function and discounting was not affected by the amount of the delayed loss when it was presented alone. However, replicating other studies, smaller delayed losses were discounted more steeply than larger ones when presented in combination with immediate gains. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two factors, one loading primarily on loss-only conditions and the other loading primarily on conditions involving outcomes that combined gains and losses. These results imply that there are individual differences in how one combines gains and losses and that this characteristic of individual decision making might be an important predictor of decisions in the many everyday choice situations that involve complex outcomes.

Heterogeneity in general multinomial choice models

Different voters behave differently at the polls, different students make different university choices, or different countries choose different health care systems. Many research questions important to social scientists concern choice behavior, which involves dealing with nominal dependent variables. Drawing on the principle of maximum random utility, we propose applying a flexible and general heterogeneous multinomial logit model to study differences in choice behavior. The model systematically accounts for heterogeneity that classical models do not capture, indicates the strength of heterogeneity, and permits examining which explanatory variables cause heterogeneity. As the proposed approach allows incorporating theoretical expectations about heterogeneity into the analysis of nominal dependent variables, it can be applied to a wide range of research problems. Our empirical example uses individual-level survey data to demonstrate the benefits of the model in studying heterogeneity in electoral decisions.

Lesion Evidence for a Causal Role of the Insula in Aversion to Social Inequity.

Humans resist unequal distributions of goods in their social interactions, even if it requires foregoing personal gains. Functional neuroimaging studies implicate the insula in this aversion to social inequity and in fairness-related decisions, but a causal contribution has not yet been established. We compared the responses of 30 patients with lesions to the insula on a multiple-trial version of the one-shot Ultimatum Game, a neuroeconomic social exchange paradigm where a sum of money is split between two players, to those of 30 matched patients with brain injuries sparing the insula. Insula lesion patients accepted offers of an unequal disadvantageous split significantly more often than comparison lesion patients. Computational modeling confirmed that this difference in choice behavior was due to decreased aversion to disadvantageous inequity following insula damage, rather than due to increased decision noise or non-consideration of inequity. Our results provide novel evidence that the insula is causally involved in aversion to inequity and in value-based choices in the context of social interactions.

Diminished Feedback Evaluation and Knowledge Updating Underlying Age-Related Differences in Choice Behavior During Feedback Learning.

In our daily lives, we continuously evaluate feedback information, update our knowledge, and adapt our behavior in order to reach desired goals. This ability to learn from feedback information, however, declines with age. Previous research has indicated that certain higher-level learning processes, such as feedback evaluation, integration of feedback information, and updating of knowledge, seem to be affected by age, and recent studies have shown how the adaption of choice behavior following feedback can differ with age. The neural mechanisms underlying this age-related change in choice behavior during learning, however, remain unclear. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate the relation between learning-related neural processes and choice behavior during feedback learning in two age groups. Behavioral and fMRI data were collected, while a group of young (age 18–30) and older (age 60–75) adults performed a probabilistic learning task consisting of 10 blocks of 20 trials each. On each trial, the participants chose between a house and a face, after which they received visual feedback (loss vs. gain). In each block, either the house or the face image had a higher probability of yielding a reward (62.5 vs. 37.5%). Participants were instructed to try to maximize their gains. Our results showed that less successful learning in older adults, as indicated by a lower learning rate, corresponded with a higher tendency to switch to the other stimulus option, and with a reduced adaptation of this switch choice behavior following positive feedback. At the neural level, activation following positive and negative feedback was found to be less distinctive in the older adults, due to a smaller feedback-evaluation response to positive feedback in this group. Furthermore, whereas young adults displayed increased levels of knowledge updating prior to adapting choice behavior, we did not find this effect in older adults. Together, our results suggest that diminished learning performance with age corresponds with diminished evaluation of positive feedback and reduced knowledge updating related to changes in choice behavior, indicating how such differences in feedback processing at the trial level in older adults might lead to reduced learning performance across trials.

How Have Travelers Changed Mode Choices for First/Last Mile Trips after the Introduction of Bicycle-Sharing Systems: An Empirical Study in Beijing, China

In recent years, there has been rapid development in bicycle-sharing systems (BSS) in China. Moreover, such schemes are considered promising solutions to the first/last mile problem. This study investigates the mode choice behaviors of travelers for first/last mile trips before and after the introduction of bicycle-sharing systems. Travel choice models for first/last mile trips are determined using a multinomial logit model. It also analyzes the differences in choice behavior between the young and other age groups. The findings show that shared bicycles become the preferred mode, while travelers preferred walking before bicycle-sharing systems were implemented. Gender, bicycle availability, and travel frequency were the most significant factors before the implementation of bicycle-sharing systems. However, after implementation, access distance dramatically affects mode choices for first/last mile trips. When shared bicycles are available, the mode choices of middle-aged group depend mainly on gender and access distance. All factors are not significant for the young and aged groups. More than 80% of public transport travelers take walking and shared bicycles as feeder modes. The proposed models and findings contribute to a better understanding of travelers’ choice behaviors and to the development of solutions for the first/last mile problem.

Gaze bias differences capture individual choice behaviour

How do we make simple choices such as deciding between an apple and an orange? Recent empirical evidence suggests that choice behaviour and gaze allocation are closely linked at the group level, whereby items looked at longer during the decision-making process are more likely to be chosen. However, it is unclear how variable this gaze bias effect is between individuals. Here we investigate this question across four different simple choice experiments and using a computational model that can be easily applied to individuals. We show that an association between gaze and choice is present for most individuals, but differs considerably in strength. Generally, individuals with a strong association between gaze and choice behaviour are worse at choosing the best item from a choice set compared with individuals with a weak association. Accounting for individuals' variability in gaze bias in the model can explain and accurately predict individual differences in choice behaviour.

Decision making and age: Factors influencing decision making under uncertainty

In the present study, we investigate how decision making under uncertainty is affected by age. We ran two experiments with young and older adults, systematically manipulating (1) uncertainty conditions (risk and ambiguity), (2) feedback on decisions and (3) requirements of the task regarding executive functions. Experiment 1 aims at investigating risk with a priori probabilities and ambiguity and the effects of feedback in a card game (N = 200; older adults: 97). The results reveal no age differences in choice behaviour under risk with a priori probabilities. If feedback is provided, we find that older adults are less ambiguity averse than young adults, whereas there is no significant age difference if no feedback is provided. Moreover, the presence of feedback had a positive effect on the propensity to gamble in uncertain conditions by influencing subjective probabilities for both age groups. Experiment 2 uses the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) to investigate decision making with statistical probabilities (N = 100; older adults: 50). Here we report older adults being more risk averse, an effect that can be explained with age differences in sensitivity to prior choices. We support the results by comparing them to survey data and conclude that differences in uncertainty-processing exist between young and older adults. Possible explanations of these differences are discussed.

Behavioural Consistency within the Prisoner'S Dilemma Game: The Role of Personality and Situation

Mixed–motive games represent situations that confront people with a conflict between cooperative and non–cooperative alternatives. Despite this common basis, recent research has shown that the consistency of people's choices across different mixed–motive games is rather low. The present research examined behavioural consistency within the same mixed–motive game, by presenting participants with a series of one–shot Prisoner's Dilemma Games. Across this set of games, payoffs were manipulated in order to intensify or weaken the conflict between self and the other party while maintaining the game's underlying structure. Our findings indicate that significant differences in choice behaviour are observed as a function of both situational (i.e. manipulations of the Prisoner's Dilemma Game's payoff structure) and personality differences (i.e. individual differences in personality and motivational traits). Moreover, our included situational variables and personality features did not interact with each other and were about equally impactful in shaping cooperation. Crucially, however, despite the significant behavioural differences across game variants, considerable consistency in choices was found as well, which suggests that the game's motivational basis reliably impacts choice behaviour in spite of situational and personality variations. We discuss implications for theorizing on mixed–motive situations and elaborate on the question how cooperation can be promoted. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology

Credit Assignment in a Motor Decision Making Task Is Influenced by Agency and Not Sensory Prediction Errors.

Failures to obtain reward can occur from errors in action selection or action execution. Recently, we observed marked differences in choice behavior when the failure to obtain a reward was attributed to errors in action execution compared with errors in action selection (McDougle et al., 2016). Specifically, participants appeared to solve this credit assignment problem by discounting outcomes in which the absence of reward was attributed to errors in action execution. Building on recent evidence indicating relatively direct communication between the cerebellum and basal ganglia, we hypothesized that cerebellar-dependent sensory prediction errors (SPEs), a signal indicating execution failure, could attenuate value updating within a basal ganglia-dependent reinforcement learning system. Here we compared the SPE hypothesis to an alternative, "top-down" hypothesis in which changes in choice behavior reflect participants' sense of agency. In two experiments with male and female human participants, we manipulated the strength of SPEs, along with the participants' sense of agency in the second experiment. The results showed that, whereas the strength of SPE had no effect on choice behavior, participants were much more likely to discount the absence of rewards under conditions in which they believed the reward outcome depended on their ability to produce accurate movements. These results provide strong evidence that SPEs do not directly influence reinforcement learning. Instead, a participant's sense of agency appears to play a significant role in modulating choice behavior when unexpected outcomes can arise from errors in action execution.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT When learning from the outcome of actions, the brain faces a credit assignment problem: Failures of reward can be attributed to poor choice selection or poor action execution. Here, we test a specific hypothesis that execution errors are implicitly signaled by cerebellar-based sensory prediction errors. We evaluate this hypothesis and compare it with a more "top-down" hypothesis in which the modulation of choice behavior from execution errors reflects participants' sense of agency. We find that sensory prediction errors have no significant effect on reinforcement learning. Instead, instructions influencing participants' belief of causal outcomes appear to be the main factor influencing their choice behavior.

Can dogs use vocal intonation as a social referencing cue in an object choice task?

Evidence from the literature indicates that dogs' choices can be influenced by human-delivered social cues, such as pointing, and pointing combined with facial expression, intonation (i.e., rising and falling voice pitch), and/or words. The present study used an object choice task to investigate whether intonation conveys unique information in the absence of other salient cues. We removed facial expression cues and speech information by delivering cues with the experimenter's back to the dog and by using nonword vocalizations. During each trial, the dog was presented with pairs of the following three vocal cues: Positive (happy-sounding), Negative (sad-sounding), and Breath (neutral control). In Experiment 1, where dogs received only these vocal cue pairings, dogs preferred the Positive intonation, and there was no difference in choice behavior between Negative or Breath. In Experiment 2, we includeda point cue with one of the two vocal cues in each pairing. Here, dogs preferred containers receiving pointing cues as well as Negative intonation, and preference was greatest when both of these cues were presented together. Taken together, these findings indicate that dogs can indeed extract information from vocal intonation alone, and may use intonation as a social referencing cue. However, the effect of intonation on behavior appears to be strongly influenced by the presence of pointing, which is known to be a highly salient visual cue for dogs. It is possible that in the presence of a point cue, intonation may shiftfrom informative to instructive.

Age differences in maximization

Studies have shown the existence of inter-individual differences in choice behavior, some people seeking for the best (maximizers) and others for a good enough option (satisficers). Here, we explored whether these inter-individual differences are influenced by aging and common personality traits (i.e., Big Five model). Young (n=125; 19years old) and elderly adults (n=101; 86years old) completed different scales assessing – among others – maximization and Big Five traits. Our results indicated a greater proportion of maximizers in elderly than in young adults. We also found a minor association between maximization and Big Five traits in both groups. In sum, aging influences choice behavior, but this cannot be explained by changes of common personality traits.

Impact of stimulus format and reward value on quantity discrimination in capuchin and squirrel monkeys.

Quantity discrimination abilities are seen in a diverse range of species with similarities in performance patterns, suggesting common underlying cognitive mechanisms. However, methodological factors that impact performance make it difficult to draw broad phylogenetic comparisons of numerical cognition across studies. For example, some Old World monkeys selected a higher quantity stimulus more frequently when choosing between inedible (pebbles) than edible (food) stimuli. In Experiment 1 we presented brown capuchin (Cebus [Sapajus] paella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) with the same two-choice quantity discrimination task in three different stimulus conditions: edible, inedible, and edible replaced (in which choice stimuli were food items that stood in for the same quantity of food items that were given as a reward). Unlike Old World monkeys, capuchins selected the higher quantity stimulus more in the edible condition and squirrel monkeys showed generally poor performance across all stimulus types. Performance patterns suggested that differences in subjective reward value might motivate differences in choice behavior between and within species. In Experiment 2 we manipulated the subjective reinforcement value of the reward by varying reward type and delay to reinforcement and found that delay to reinforcement had no impact on choice behavior, while increasing the value of the reward significantly improved performance by both species. The results of this study indicate that species presented with identical tasks may respond differently to methodological factors such as stimulus and reward types, resulting in significant differences in choice behavior that may lead to spurious suggestions of species differences in cognitive abilities.

Temporal dynamics of choice behavior in rats and humans: an examination of pre- and post-choice latencies

Identifying similarities and differences in choice behavior across species is informative about how basic mechanisms give rise to more complex processes. In the present study, we compared pre- and post-choice latencies between rats and humans under two paradigms. In Experiment 1, we used a cued choice paradigm where subjects were presented with a cue that directed them as to which of two options to respond for rewards. In Experiment 2, subjects were free to choose between two options in order to procure rewards. In both Experiments rewards were delivered with distinct probabilities. The trial structure used in these experiments allowed the choice process to be decomposed into pre- and post-choice processes. Overall, post-choice latencies reflected the difference in reward probability between the two options, where latencies for the option with higher probability of reward were longer than those for the option with lower probability of reward. An interesting difference between rats and humans was observed: the choice behavior for humans, but not rats, was sensitive to the free-choice aspect of the tasks, such that in free-choice trials post-choice latencies no longer reflected the difference in reward probabilities between the two options.

Greater preference consistency during the Willingness-to-Pay task is related to higher resting state connectivity between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the ventral striatum.

The significance of why a similar set of brain regions are associated with the default mode network and value-related neural processes remains to be clarified. Here, we examined i) whether brain regions exhibiting willingness-to-pay (WTP) task-related activity are intrinsically connected when the brain is at rest, ii) whether these regions overlap spatially with the default mode network, and iii) whether individual differences in choice behavior during the WTP task are reflected in functional brain connectivity at rest. Blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal was measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging while subjects performed the WTP task and at rest with eyes open. Brain regions that tracked the value of bids during the WTP task were used as seed regions in an analysis of functional connectivity in the resting state data. The seed in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex was functionally connected to core regions of the WTP task-related network. Brain regions within the WTP task-related network, namely the ventral precuneus, ventromedial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortex overlapped spatially with publically available maps of the default mode network. Also, those individuals with higher functional connectivity during rest between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the ventral striatum showed greater preference consistency during the WTP task. Thus, WTP task-related regions are an intrinsic network of the brain that corresponds spatially with the default mode network, and individual differences in functional connectivity within the WTP network at rest may reveal a priori biases in choice behavior.

Dorsal premotor cortex: neural correlates of reach target decisions based on a color-location matching rule and conflicting sensory evidence.

We recorded single-neuron activity in dorsal premotor (PMd) and primary motor cortex (M1) of two monkeys in a reach-target selection task. The monkeys chose between two color-coded potential targets by determining which target's color matched the predominant color of a multicolored checkerboard-like Decision Cue (DC). Different DCs contained differing numbers of colored squares matching each target. The DCs provided evidence about the correct target ranging from unambiguous (one color only) to very ambiguous and conflicting (nearly equal number of squares of each color). Differences in choice behavior (reach response times and success rates as a function of DC ambiguity) of the monkeys suggested that each applied a different strategy for using the target-choice evidence in the DCs. Nevertheless, the appearance of the DCs evoked a transient coactivation of PMd neurons preferring both potential targets in both monkeys. Reach response time depended both on how long it took activity to increase in neurons that preferred the chosen target and on how long it took to suppress the activity of neurons that preferred the rejected target, in both correct-choice and error-choice trials. These results indicate that PMd neurons in this task are not activated exclusively by a signal proportional to the net color bias of the DCs. They are instead initially modulated by the conflicting evidence supporting both response choices; final target selection may result from a competition between representations of the alternative choices. The results also indicate a temporal overlap between action selection and action initiation processes in PMd and M1.

Functional Compensation in the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Improves Memory-Dependent Decisions in Older Adults

Everyday consumer choices frequently involve memory, as when we retrieve information about consumer products when making purchasing decisions. In this context, poor memory may affect decision quality, particularly in individuals with memory decline, such as older adults. However, age differences in choice behavior may be reduced if older adults can recruit additional neural resources that support task performance. Although such functional compensation is well documented in other cognitive domains, it is presently unclear whether it can support memory-guided decision making and, if so, which brain regions play a role in compensation. The current study engaged younger and older humans in a memory-dependent choice task in which pairs of consumer products from a popular online-shopping site were evaluated with different delays between the first and second product. Using functional imaging (fMRI), we found that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) supports compensation as defined by three a priori criteria: (1) increased vmPFC activation was observed in older versus younger adults; (2) age-related increases in vmPFC activity were associated with increased retrieval demands; and (3) increased vmPFC activity was positively associated with performance in older adults-evidence of successful compensation. Extending these results, we observed evidence for compensation in connectivity between vmPFC and the dorsolateral PFC during memory-dependent choice. In contrast, we found no evidence for age differences in value-related processing or age-related compensation for choices without delayed retrieval. Together, these results converge on the conclusion that age-related decline in memory-dependent choice performance can be minimized via functional compensation in vmPFC.

Distance and sex determine host plant choice by herbivorous beetles.

BackgroundPlants respond to herbivore damage with the release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This indirect defense can cause ecological costs when herbivores themselves use VOCs as cues to localize suitable host plants. Can VOCs reliably indicate food plant quality to herbivores?MethodologyWe determined the choice behavior of herbivorous beetles (Chrysomelidae: Gynandrobrotica guerreroensis and Cerotoma ruficornis) when facing lima bean plants (Fabaceae: Phaseolus lunatus) with different cyanogenic potential, which is an important constitutive direct defense. Expression of inducible indirect defenses was experimentally manipulated by jasmonic acid treatment at different concentrations. The long-distance responses of male and female beetles to the resulting induced plant volatiles were investigated in olfactometer and free-flight experiments and compared to the short-distance decisions of the same beetles in feeding trials.ConclusionFemale beetles of both species were repelled by VOCs released from all induced plants independent of the level of induction. In contrast, male beetles were repelled by strongly induced plants, showed no significant differences in choice behavior towards moderately induced plants, but responded positively to VOCs released from little induced plants. Thus, beetle sex and plant VOCs had a significant effect on host searching behavior. By contrast, feeding behavior of both sexes was strongly determined by the cyanogenic potential of leaves, although females again responded more sensitively than males. Apparently, VOCs mainly provide information to these beetles that are not directly related to food quality. Being induced by herbivory and involved in indirect plant defense, such VOCs might indicate the presence of competitors and predators to herbivores. We conclude that plant quality as a food source and finding a potentially enemy-free space is more important for female than for male insect herbivores, whereas the presence of a slightly damaged plant can help males to localize putative mating partners.

A Multiple-Choice Task with Changes of Mind

The role of changes of mind and multiple choices has recently received increased attention in the study of perceptual decision-making. Previously, these extensions to standard two-alternative tasks have been studied separately. Here we explored how changes of mind depend on the number of choice-alternatives. To this end, we tested 14 human subjects on a 2- and 4-alternative direction-discrimination task. Changes of mind in the participants' movement trajectories could be observed for two and for four choice alternatives. With fewer alternatives, participants responded faster and more accurately. The frequency of changes of mind, however, did not significantly differ for the different numbers of choice alternatives. Nevertheless, mind-changing improved the participants' final performance, particularly for intermediate difficulty levels, in both experimental conditions. Moreover, the mean reaction times of individual participants were negatively correlated with their overall tendency to make changes of mind. We further reproduced these findings with a multi-alternative attractor model for decision-making, while a simple race model could not account for the experimental data. Our experiment, combined with the theoretical models allowed us to shed light on: (1) the differences in choice behavior between two and four alternatives, (2) the differences between the data of our human subjects and previous monkey data, (3) individual differences between participants, and (4) the inhibitory interaction between neural representations of choice alternatives.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN IMPULSIVE CHOICE AND TIMING IN RATS

Individual differences in impulsive choice behavior have been linked to a variety of behavioral problems including substance abuse, smoking, gambling, and poor financial decision-making. Given the potential importance of individual differences in impulsive choice as a predictor of behavioral problems, the present study sought to measure the extent of individual differences in a normal sample of hooded Lister rats. Three experiments utilized variations of a delay discounting task to measure the degree of variation in impulsive choice behavior across individual rats. The individual differences accounted for 22-55% of the variance in choice behavior across the three experiments. In Experiments 2 and 3, the individual differences were still apparent when behavior was measured across multiple choice points. Large individual differences in the rate of responding, and modest individual differences in timing of responding were also observed during occasional peak trials. The individual differences in timing and rate, however, did not correlate consistently with individual differences in choice behavior. This suggests that a variety of factors may affect choice behavior, response rate, and response timing.