Differences In Behavioral Outcomes Research Articles

Gender Differences in Preferences for Meaning at Work

Scholars have examined whether preferences for job characteristics help explain why men and women sort into different occupations but have overlooked preferences for meaning at work. We first document gender differences in preferences for meaning in a large-scale survey covering individuals in 47 countries. We then conduct a choice-based conjoint analysis of a cohort of MBA students at a leading business school to study gender differences in preferences for meaning compared to other job attributes. We show that gender differences in preferences for meaning at work are widespread and partly explain gender differences in behavioral outcomes, including industry of work. (JEL D91, I23, J16, J24, J28)

Experimental Evidence on Age-related Differential Outcomes Associated With Substance Abuse

A growing number of evidence indicates that adolescent substance abuse is now an alarming concern, which imposes a considerable socio-economic burden on societies. On the other hand, numerous studies have shown that due to specific neurophysiological features, the brain is more vulnerable to the adverse effects of psychoactive drugs at early ages. Unfortunately, these negative effects are not limited to the period of drug use, but, they could persistently affect the brain’s responsiveness to future exposures to the same or other types of drug. In order for researchers to develop pharmacological strategies for managing substance abuse disorders, it is important for them to gain a deep understanding of the differences in behavioral outcomes associated with each type of drug across different age groups. In the present study, we aimed to review the experimental evidence revealing the mentioned differential effects with an emphasis on common drugs of abuse, including cocaine, nicotine, cannabis and opioids. Although, the cellular mechanisms underlying age-related effects have not been exclusively addressed for each drug, the most recent findings are presented and discussed. Future studies are required to focus on these mechanisms and reveal how molecular changes during brain development could result in differential responses to drugs at the behavioral level.

Psychosocial correlates of neurodevelopmental disabilities in 2- to 3-year-olds

RationaleCanada’s National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth survey data provide insights into chronic health conditions in children. Children with neurodevelopmental disabilities (NDD) are at increased risk for adverse behavioral outcomes. MethodsWe examined data from 3 cycles of Canada’s National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth for the presence of epilepsy (Epi), cerebral palsy (CP), and intellectual disability (ID) in 2- to 3-year-olds. We then examined the relationship of NDD to composite measures of behavior: hyperactivity-inattention (HI), prosocial behaviors (PS), emotional disorder-anxiety (EA), physical aggression oppositional behavior (AO), and separation anxiety (SA). ResultsThere were 15 children with Epi, 25 with CP and 28 with ID in a sample of 10,879, which represented a population of 756,848 2- to 3-year-old Canadian children. Comparison of mean scores of the NDD groups and controls (Welch’s ANOVA), indicated statistically significant differences in HI, PS, EA, and SA at the p < 0.001 level. Post hoc analysis showed significant intergroup differences. Children with epilepsy did not differ from controls on any of the behavioral measures. However, in comparison to controls, children with intellectual disability had higher EA and SA scores and lower PS scores, and those with cerebral palsy had lower PS scores. ConclusionsChildren with NDD show differences in behavioral outcomes at a very early age when compared with controls. Screening for these behaviors and early intervention programs may help avoid longer term psychiatric comorbidity associated with these disabilities.

Early life behavior and disease dynamics of pair-housed Holstein heifer calves

Although social housing has been associated with improved welfare in farm animals, little is documented about the early life behavior or the disease dynamics of pair-housed calves. Our objective was to describe and analyze the behavior of pair-housed calves from day 1–10 of life, together with the disease dynamics within pairs during the first 30 days of life. An observational study was conducted in the summer of 2020, in a calf facility in Northern Colorado, USA. A total of 58 pairs of Holstein heifer calves were enrolled at birth and followed for 1 month to analyze disease dynamics within pairs housed together. A subgroup of 15 pairs of calves were video recorded to assess the dynamics in their behavior until 10 days of life. Calves were video recorded 3 times per day (AM, Noon, PM) for 60 min before and after each milk feeding (360 min/day). Behaviors of interest were resting and active time, play behavior, and time spent alone or together. Calf health was assessed 3 times per week. Linear mixed models were completed to evaluate differences in behavioral outcomes across days, considering pair as a cluster. Mean (SE) resting time ranged from 75.5 (2.8) to 107.9 (3.4) min per 120 min period, while active time ranged from 15.6 (6.9) to 84.5 (5.2) min per period. Calves modified their resting/active time over the monitoring period in both the AM and PM periods. Notably, calves spent over 50% of the active time performing play behaviors. From day 2, calves increased their active time interacting in social or synchronized play behaviors. Moreover, calves increased their time together inside the hutch in the AM from 17.9 (8.7) to 46.7 (9.1) min. Similarly, they increased their time together outside the hutch in the AM from 7.3 (3.6) to 31.4 (3.6) min, and during the PM from 3.5 (4.9) to 27.4 (5.5) min. Regarding disease presentation, 98% of the calves had events of abnormal fecal consistency within 30 days of life. However, 26% of the pair mates did not develop disease within 5 days following the diagnosis of the initial case within the pair. Furthermore, 75.6% of the abnormal fecal consistency cases were moderate, and 71.4% of pen mates did not show the same level of severity. Young calves modified their behavior towards a more social setting, despite challenging environmental conditions associated with the summer season. Diarrhea did not develop in all pair mates regardless of contact.

Age‐related hearing loss and neural correlates of visual short‐term memory

AbstractBackgroundAge‐related hearing loss (ARHL) may be a potential modifiable risk factor for neurocognitive decline and dementia. Previous studies have reported HL is associated with decline in visual memory function. Evidence also suggests that following ARHL, there is neural reorganization in regions critical for memory. The aim of this pilot was to explore the association of ARHL with neural correlates of visual short‐term memory binding (VSTMB).MethodParticipants over the age of 65 were recruited and divided into three groups (controls (n = 14), mild HL (n = 21), and moderate or greater HL (n = 23)) based on results from a tablet‐based hearing measure. Volunteers completed the VSTMB task (shapes and binding conditions) while electroencephalography (EEG) data was synchronously recorded using a high‐density EEG array (128 scalp electrodes). Analysis was focused on comparing 5 different components (P1, N1, P2, P3, and late positive potential (LPP)) between both HL groups to controls for the memory encoding and testing phases on both shapes and binding conditions. Statistical analysis of source reconstructions (sLORETA) was also performed to explore neural regions underlying VSTMB.ResultThere was no difference between groups in behavioral performance on the VSTMB task. There were a limited number of differences in electrophysiological activity, primarily in P1, P2, P3 and LPP which increased from mild to moderate or greater HL. Analyses of source reconstructions suggested there were bilateral differences in frontal, central, parietal, temporal, and occipital neural regions between groups.ConclusionThere were no differences in behavioral outcomes in VSTMB with HL. There may be underlying differences in neural activity on this task with greater HL which is in accordance with prior research. Further investigation into differences in neural processes underlying episodic memory with HL would be informative, particularly to examine if such differences are associated with future memory function.

Types and Frequency of Dysfunction of Sensory Integration in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Aims: To determine the frequency and the types of dysfunctions in sensory integration in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).&#x0D; Study Design: Quantitative study.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Centre for rehabilitation of pathology of verbal communication – Skopje, between January and December 2022.&#x0D; Methodology: We surveyed 40 patients (32 boys, 8 girls; age range 3 – 7 years) with ASD. The research method used was qualitative description. Content analysis and documentation analysis were used as research tools. Sensory Profile Caregiver Questionnaire was used as an instrument.&#x0D; Results: Out of 40 patients, 33 patients displayed definite differences at least in one of the Sensory Profile sections. The most frequent differences in Sensory Processing section were observed in Vestibular and Multi-Sensory Processing (39,4% in each of both sections, out of the total number of children with total score in definite differences range). In Modulation score pattern, definite differences were most frequent in Modulation of Sensory Input affecting Emotional Responses (48,5% of the total number of children in the definite differences range). In Behavior and Emotional Responses score pattern, the most frequent were the definite differences in Behavioral Outcomes of Sensory Processing (45,5% of children with total score in definite differences range). Referring to the Factors section, most of the participants had definite differences in Emotionally Reactive and Fine Motor/Perceptual factors (39,4% in each of both sections) Regarding the Quadrants section, 54,5% out of the total number of children with total score in definite differences range had definite differences in Sensory Avoiding.&#x0D; Conclusion: Sensory abnormalities in children with ASD may be the key to understand many of their challenging behaviors, and thus it is a relevant aspect to be taken into account in their management. A formal evaluation of sensory integration processes should be performed in these children.

Parent-child interaction therapy for children in foster care and children with posttraumatic stress: Exploring behavioral outcomes and graduation rates in a large state-wide sample

ObjectiveParent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) is an evidence-based treatment to reduce child disruptive behaviors and has been used for children with co-occurring posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS). However, many families are faced with barriers that interfere with treatment completion. Engagement and attrition issues remain a continuous concern for families accessing needed services for youth. Furthermore, these issues are exacerbated for children in foster care. MethodsThe present study explored differences in behavioral outcomes and graduation rates for children in foster care, (n = 206), non-foster care children with a history of trauma (n = 249), and non-foster care children without a history of trauma (n = 1,522) who participated in PCIT. Data was collected in community mental health agencies across the state of Oregon. ResultsThere was a significant decrease in caregiver reported disruptive behavior scores for all groups following PCIT. There were no significant differences found in graduation rates and average number of sessions attended between the groups; however, the graduation rate for this sample was low (17.8%). ConclusionsResults demonstrate that PCIT can be similarly effective in reducing problematic behaviors for children placed in foster care when compared to children not in foster care. Practical Implications: Given the low graduation rate, is imperative that we continue to investigate strategies to enhance treatment engagement and reduce barriers to services.

Non-invasive brain stimulation modulates GABAergic activity in neurofibromatosis 1

Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) is a single-gene disorder associated with cognitive phenotypes common to neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism. GABAergic dysregulation underlies working memory impairments seen in NF1. This mechanistic experimental study investigates whether application of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (atDCS) can modulate GABA and working memory in NF1. Thirty-one NF1 adolescents 11–18 years, were recruited to this single-blind sham-controlled cross-over randomized trial. AtDCS or sham stimulation was applied to the left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) and MR Spectroscopy was collected before and after intervention in the left DLPFC and occipital cortex. Task-related functional MRI was collected before, during, and after stimulation. Higher baseline GABA+ in the left DLPFC was associated with faster response times on baseline working memory measures. AtDCS was seen to significantly reduced GABA+ and increase brain activation in the left DLPFC as compared to sham stimulation. Task performance was worse in the aTDCS group during stimulation but no group differences in behavioural outcomes were observed at the end of stimulation. Although our study suggests aTDCS modulates inhibitory activity in the DLPFC, further work is needed to determine whether repeated sessions of atDCS and strategies such as alternating current stimulation offer a better therapeutic approach.

Therapeutic Interventions in Rat Models of Preterm Hypoxic Ischemic Injury: Effects of Hypothermia, Caffeine, and the Influence of Sex.

Infants born prematurely have an increased risk of experiencing brain injury, specifically injury caused by Hypoxia Ischemia (HI). There is no approved treatment for preterm infants, in contrast to term infants that experience Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy (HIE) and can be treated with hypothermia. Given this increased risk and lack of approved treatment, it is imperative to explore and model potential treatments in animal models of preterm injury. Hypothermia is one potential treatment, though cooling to current clinical standards has been found to be detrimental for preterm infants. However, mild hypothermia may prove useful. Caffeine is another treatment that is already used in preterm infants to treat apnea of prematurity, and has shown neuroprotective effects. Both of these treatments show sex differences in behavioral outcomes and neuroprotective effects, which are critical to explore when working to translate from animal to human. The effects and research history of hypothermia, caffeine and how sex affects these treatment outcomes will be explored further in this review article.

Decision flexibilities in autism spectrum disorder: an fMRI study of moral dilemmas.

People make flexible decisions across a wide range of contexts to resolve social or moral conflicts. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) frequently report difficulties in such behaviors, which hinders the flexibility in changing strategies during daily activities or adjustment of perspective during communication. However, the underlying mechanisms of this issue are insufficiently understood. This study aimed to investigate decision flexibility in ASD using a functional magnetic resonance imaging task that involved recognizing and resolving two types of moral dilemmas: cost–benefit analysis (CBA) and mitigating inevitable misconducts (MIM). The CBA session assessed the participants’ pitting of result-oriented outcomes against distressful harmful actions, whereas the MIM session assessed their pitting of the extenuation of a criminal sentence against a sympathetic situation of defendants suffering from violence or disease. The behavioral outcome in CBA-related flexibility was significantly lower in the ASD group compared to that of the typical development group. In the corresponding CBA contrast, activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus was lower in the ASD group. Meanwhile, in the MIM-related flexibility, there were no significant group differences in behavioral outcome or brain activity. Our findings add to our understanding of flexible decision-making in ASD.

Rural-Urban Differences in Behavioral Outcomes among Adults with Lifetime History of Traumatic Brain Injury with Loss of Consciousness: 2016-2019 Ohio BRFSS.

This study examined if the associations between lifetime history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) with loss of consciousness (LOC) and unhealthy alcohol use or mental health problems differ by location of living (rural vs. urban). The lifetime history data of TBI with LOC, location of living, unhealthy alcohol use (binge drinking, heavy drinking), and mental health problems (depression diagnosis, number of poor mental health days) were sourced from the 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019 Ohio Behavioral Risk Factory Surveillance Surveys, and the final sample included 16,941 respondents. We conducted multivariable logistic regressions to determine the odds ratios for each of the five outcomes between individuals living in rural vs. urban areas and between individuals with vs. without a lifetime history of TBI with LOC. No interaction between location of living and lifetime history of TBI with LOC was observed for any outcomes, indicating rurality did not modify these relationships. Living in a rural area was associated with decreased binge drinking or heavy drinking but not mental health outcomes. Lifetime history of TBI with LOC was associated with an increased risk of binge drinking, heavy drinking, depression diagnoses, and poor general mental health, regardless of location of living. Our findings support the need for TBI screenings as part of mental health intake evaluations and behavioral health screenings. Though rurality was not associated with mental health outcomes, rural areas may have limited access to quality mental health care. Therefore, future research should address access to mental health services following TBI among rural residents.

A Preclinical Study of Standard Versus Accelerated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Depression in Adolescents.

Objective: Ongoing studies are focused on adapting transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for the treatment of major depressive disorder in adolescent humans. Most protocols in adolescent humans to date have delivered daily 10 Hz prefrontal stimulation with mixed results. Novel TMS dosing strategies such as accelerated TMS have recently been considered. There are knowledge gaps related to the potential clinical and pragmatic advantages of accelerated TMS. This pilot study compared the behavioral effects of a standard daily and accelerated low-intensity TMS (LI-TMS) protocol in an adolescent murine model of depression. Methods: Male adolescent Sprague Dawley rats were placed in transparent plexiglass tubes for 2.5 hours daily for 13 days as part of a study to validate the chronic restraint stress (CRS) protocol. Rats subsequently received 10 minutes of active or sham 10 Hz LI-TMS daily for 2 weeks (standard) or three times daily for 1 week (accelerated). Behavior was assessed using the elevated plus maze and forced swim test (FST). Hippocampal neurogenesis was assessed by injection of the thymidine analogue 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine at the end of LI-TMS treatment (2 weeks standard, 1 week accelerated), followed by postmortem histological analysis. Results: There were no significant differences in behavioral outcomes among animals receiving once-daily sham or active LI-TMS treatment. However, animals treated with accelerated LI-TMS demonstrated significant improvements in behavioral outcomes compared with sham treatment. Specifically, animals receiving active accelerated treatment showed greater latency to the first immobility behavior (p < 0.05; active: 130 ± 46 seconds; sham: 54 ± 39 seconds) and increased climbing behaviors (p < 0.05; active: 16 ± 5; sham: 9 ± 5) during FST. There were no changes in hippocampal neurogenesis nor any evidence of cell death in histological sections. Conclusions: An accelerated LI-TMS protocol outperformed the standard (once-daily) protocol in adolescent male animals with depression-like behaviors induced by CRS and was not accompanied by any toxicity or tolerability concerns. These preliminary findings support the speculation that novel TMS dosing strategies should be studied in adolescent humans and will inform future clinical protocols.

Sex Differences in Affective Dysfunction and Alterations in Parvalbumin in Rodent Models of Early Life Adversity.

The early life environment markedly influences brain and behavioral development, with adverse experiences associated with increased risk of anxiety and depressive phenotypes, particularly in females. Indeed, early life adversity (ELA) in humans (i.e., caregiver deprivation, maltreatment) and rodents (i.e., maternal separation, resource scarcity) is associated with sex-specific emergence of anxious and depressive behaviors. Although these disorders show clear sex differences in humans, little attention has been paid toward evaluating sex as a biological variable in models of affective dysfunction; however, recent rodent work suggests sex-specific effects. Two widely used rodent models of ELA approximate caregiver deprivation (i.e., maternal separation) and resource scarcity (i.e., limited bedding). While these approaches model aspects of ELA experienced in humans, they span different portions of the pre-weaning developmental period and may therefore differentially contribute to underlying mechanistic risk. This is borne out in the literature, where evidence suggests differences in trajectories of behavior depending on the type of ELA and/or sex; however, the neural underpinning of these differences is not well understood. Because anxiety and depression are thought to involve dysregulation in the balance of excitatory and inhibitory signaling in ELA-vulnerable brain regions (e.g., prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus), outcomes are likely driven by alterations in local and/or circuit-specific inhibitory activity. The most abundant GABAergic subtypes in the brain, accounting for approximately 40% of inhibitory neurons, contain the calcium-binding protein Parvalbumin (PV). As PV-expressing neurons have perisomatic and proximal dendritic targets on pyramidal neurons, they are well-positioned to regulate excitatory/inhibitory balance. Recent evidence suggests that PV outcomes following ELA are sex, age, and region-specific and may be influenced by the type and timing of ELA. Here, we suggest the possibility of a combined role of PV and sex hormones driving differences in behavioral outcomes associated with affective dysfunction following ELA. This review evaluates the literature across models of ELA to characterize neural (PV) and behavioral (anxiety- and depressive-like) outcomes as a function of sex and age. Additionally, we detail a putative mechanistic role of PV on ELA-related outcomes and discuss evidence suggesting hormone influences on PV expression/function which may help to explain sex differences in ELA outcomes.

0878 Association of Obstructive Sleep Apnea with Internalizing Symptoms vs. Externalizing Behaviors in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Abstract Introduction Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children has been associated with insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), and abnormal periodic limb movements (PLMS). However, there is lack of data examining the contribution of OSA to ADHD-related internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors in adolescents. Methods We studied the Penn State Child Cohort, a random general population sample of 700 children (8.7±1.7y), of whom 421 were followed-up 8.3 years later during adolescence (17.0±2.3y, 53.9% male). All adolescents underwent a 9-hour PSG, clinical history and physical examination. ADHD was ascertained by a parent- or self-report of having been diagnosed with ADHD. OSA was defined as an apnea hypopnea index (AHI) of ≥2 events per hour of sleep, while a periodic limb movement index (PLMI) ≥5 events per hour of sleep was indicative of PLMS. Controls, OSA-alone, ADHD-alone and ADHD+OSA were identified. The Child or Adult Behavior Checklist were used to ascertain internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Multivariable-adjusted models controlled for sex, race, age, and body mass index (BMI) percentile. Results As compared to controls, adolescents with ADHD-alone or ADHD+OSA had significantly greater externalizing behaviors (p&amp;lt;0.001), inattention (p&amp;lt;0.001) and thought problems (p&amp;lt;0.001). While adolescents with ADHD-alone had higher internalizing symptoms (p=0.021), specifically withdrawn-depression (p&amp;lt;0.01), adolescents with ADHD+OSA had more somatic problems than controls (p=0.048). There were no statistically significant differences in behavioral outcomes between controls and adolescents with OSA-alone or between adolescents with ADHD-alone and ADHD+OSA. Conclusion Adolescents with comorbid ADHD and OSA do not present with worse behavioral outcomes than those with ADHD alone. Future studies should examine whether the progression of these adolescents into young adulthood differs in terms of their behavioral outcomes and development of mental health disorders. Support National Institutes of Health (R01HL136587, R01HL97165, R01HL63772, UL1TR000127)

Electrophysiological underpinnings of response variability in the Go/NoGo task.

Response variability has been identified as a useful predictor of executive function and performance in non-clinical samples in the Go/NoGo task. The present study explores the utility of reaction time variability (RTV) and EEG measures as predictors of Go/NoGo performance outcomes and ERP component amplitudes. Forty-four young adults had EEG recorded across eyes-closed (EC) and eyes-open (EO) resting states, and during an auditory Go/NoGo task. The 18 individuals with the lowest/highest RTV were assessed for differences in behavioural outcomes. As expected, individuals with high RTV committed more Go/NoGo errors and had smaller Go P3b and NoGo P3a amplitudes, and greater Go Slow Wave positivity, reflecting inefficient decision-making and response control efforts underlying performance. When RTV and EEG measures were modelled as predictors of Go/NoGo responses, RTV and task-related changes in delta were identified as positive predictors of Go SW amplitude; while RTV and prestimulus delta amplitudes negatively predicted NoGo accuracy rates. Prestimulus delta was also found to solely predict Go mean RT and NoGo SW negativity; effects that were independent of RTV. As delta has been implicated in attention-related mechanisms, these findings suggest that inadequate attention and task engagement underpin the variability in Go/NoGo performance.

Abstract TP89: Angiotensin Receptor (AT2R) Agonist C21 Accelerates Cognitive Functional Recovery After Permanent Stroke in Aged Animals

Background and objectives: Post stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) is an understudied, long-term complication of stroke, impacting nearly 30-40% of all stroke survivors. No cure is available once the cognitive deterioration manifests. Compound 21 (C21), a novel selective non-peptide angiotensin receptor (AT2R) agonist, has also shown therapeutic efficacy in a variety of experimental stroke models, but C21 effect on PSCI model is lacking. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the long-term effects of C21 treatment on the development of PSCI in aged animals. Methods: Distal docal cerebral ischemia was induced in 14-month-old male Wistar rats by direct electro-coagulation of middle cerebral artery for permanent occlusion (pMCAO). Animals were randomly assigned to receive either C21 or vehicle which was initiated the following day, and continued for a total of 30 days (0.12 mg/kg/d, orally). Outcome measures for sensorimotor and cognitive function were performed using a sequence of tests, all blindly conducted and assessed at baseline as well as at different time points post-pMCAO. Repeated measures ANOVA mixed models were used to examine differences in behavioral outcomes. Results: C21 reduced weight loss and enhanced recovery (Table). Treatment with C21 showed significant improvement in non-spatial and short-term working memory compared to vehicle. Moreover, C21 preserved reference memory and facilitated associative learning compared to vehicle treated rats after pMCAO. Further, C21 prevented Aβ 1-42 . C21 did not show any effect on motor deficits score compared to vehicle. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate that the angiotensin receptor (AT2R) agonist C21 effectively preserves cognitive function and prevents the development of PSCI in aged animals.

The Bias of Crowds: How Implicit Bias Bridges Personal and Systemic Prejudice

ABSTRACTAs public awareness of implicit bias has grown in recent years, studies have raised important new questions about the nature of implicit bias effects. First, implicit biases are widespread and robust on average, yet are unstable across a few weeks. Second, young children display implicit biases indistinguishable from those of adults, which suggests to many that implicit biases are learned early. Yet, if implicit biases are unstable over weeks, how can they be stable for decades? Third, meta-analyses suggest that individual differences in implicit bias are associated weakly, although significantly, with individual differences in behavioral outcomes. Yet, studies of aggregate levels of implicit bias (i.e., countries, states, counties) are strongly associated with aggregate levels of disparities and discrimination. These puzzles are difficult to reconcile with traditional views, which treat implicit bias as an early-learned attitude that drives discrimination among individuals who are high in bias. We propose an alternative view of implicit bias, rooted in concept accessibility. Concept accessibility can, in principle, vary both chronically and situationally. The empirical evidence, however, suggests that most of the systematic variance in implicit bias is situational. Akin to the “wisdom of crowds” effect, implicit bias may emerge as the aggregate effect of individual fluctuations in concept accessibility that are ephemeral and context-dependent. This bias of crowds theory treats implicit bias tests as measures of situations more than persons. We show how the theory can resolve the puzzles posed and generate new insights into how and why implicit bias propagates inequalities.

The Behavioral Consequence of Phenylketonuria in Mice Depends on the Genetic Background.

To unravel the role of gene mutations in the healthy and the diseased state, countless studies have tried to link genotype with phenotype. However, over the years, it became clear that the strain of mice can influence these results. Nevertheless, identical gene mutations in different strains are often still considered equals. An example of this, is the research done in phenylketonuria (PKU), an inheritable metabolic disorder. In this field, a PKU mouse model (either on a BTBR or C57Bl/6 background) is often used to examine underlying mechanisms of the disease and/or new treatment strategies. Both strains have a point mutation in the gene coding for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase which causes toxic concentrations of the amino acid phenylalanine in blood and brain, as found in PKU patients. Although the mutation is identical and therefore assumed to equally affect physiology and behavior in both strains, no studies directly compared the two genetic backgrounds to test this assumption. Therefore, this study compared the BTBR and C57Bl/6 wild-type and PKU mice on PKU-relevant amino acid- and neurotransmitter-levels and at a behavioral level. The behavioral paradigms were selected from previous literature on the PKU mouse model and address four domains, namely (1) activity levels, (2) motor performance, (3) anxiety and/or depression-like behavior, and (4) learning and memory. The results of this study showed comparable biochemical changes in phenylalanine and neurotransmitter concentrations. In contrast, clear differences in behavioral outcome between the strains in all four above-mentioned domains were found, most notably in the learning and memory domain. The outcome in this domain seem to be primarily due to factors inherent to the genetic background of the mouse and much less by differences in PKU-specific biochemical parameters in blood and brain. The difference in behavioral outcome between PKU of both strains emphasizes that the consequence of the PAH mutation is influenced by other factors than Phe levels alone. Therefore, future research should consider these differences when choosing one of the genetic strains to investigate the pathophysiological mechanism underlying PKU-related behavior, especially when combined with new treatment strategies.

Sex differences in behavioral outcome following neonatal hypoxic ischemic brain injury: A female advantage?

Sex differences in behavioral outcome following neonatal hypoxic ischemic brain injury: A female advantage?

Sex Differences in Behavioral Outcomes Following Temperature Modulation During Induced Neonatal Hypoxic Ischemic Injury in Rats

Neonatal hypoxia ischemia (HI; reduced oxygen and/or blood flow to the brain) can cause various degrees of tissue damage, as well as subsequent cognitive/behavioral deficits such as motor, learning/memory, and auditory impairments. These outcomes frequently result from cardiovascular and/or respiratory events observed in premature infants. Data suggests that there is a sex difference in HI outcome, with males being more adversely affected relative to comparably injured females. Brain/body temperature may play a role in modulating the severity of an HI insult, with hypothermia during an insult yielding more favorable anatomical and behavioral outcomes. The current study utilized a postnatal day (P) 7 rodent model of HI injury to assess the effect of temperature modulation during injury in each sex. We hypothesized that female P7 rats would benefit more from lowered body temperatures as compared to male P7 rats. We assessed all subjects on rota-rod, auditory discrimination, and spatial/non-spatial maze tasks. Our results revealed a significant benefit of temperature reduction in HI females as measured by most of the employed behavioral tasks. However, HI males benefitted from temperature reduction as measured on auditory and non-spatial tasks. Our data suggest that temperature reduction protects both sexes from the deleterious effects of HI injury, but task and sex specific patterns of relative efficacy are seen.