Differences In Behavior Research Articles

Obesity phenotype and gut microbiota alterations are not associated with anxiety-like behaviour in high-fat diet-fed mice.

Anxiety is a common co-morbidity with obesity and metabolic disease, and can lead to a significant impact on quality of life. The vast differences in the gut microbiota between obese and control individuals provide a potential avenue for therapeutic intervention. A high-fat diet (HFD) in rodent models have been shown to induce anxiety-like behaviour and has been tested through an array of distinct behavioural tests such as the elevated plus maze test, light-dark test and open field test. Despite differences in testing and assessment parameters, the behavioural outcomes have previously yielded similar results. Recent evidence suggests that HFD has an anxiolytic effect on mice, complicating the model. Here, we aimed to confirm whether HFD-fed mice are more susceptible to presenting anxiety-like behaviours. Our findings showed no significant differences in behaviour, plasma corticosterone and inflammation markers between HFD and control diet (CTD) mice, despite considerable differences in adiposity and faecal microbial communities. Additionally, daily oral gavage is one of the most common methods for testing bacterial probiotics in rodent models, but this handling could potentially also cause stress to the mice. Thus, we investigated if daily oral gavage could mask differences in HFD and CTD mice. We found no significant differences in weight, fat mass or anxiety-like behaviour in CTD-fed mice with or without daily oral gavage.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 9-epi-Koshidacin B as Selective Inhibitor of Histone Deacetylase 1.

A concise synthetic route to an epimer of the recently isolated biologically active cyclic tetrapeptide koshidacin B has been developed, which featured a late-stage functionalization of a macrocyclic scaffold through a cross metathesis reaction. The synthetic 9-epi-koshidacin B showed marginal differences in spectroscopic behavior with that of the natural product but exhibited conformational preferences similar to those reported for analogous substrate chlamydocin. Moreover, it exhibited a useful level of selective inhibition of biologically relevant enzyme histone deacetylase 1 with an IC50 value of 0.145 μM over two other isoforms. Docking studies indicate that the natural product as well as its 9-epimer binds very similarly to the active site of HDAC1 indicating little influence of the configuration of the C9-stereocenter.

A Genetic Polymorphism Underlying Alternative Reproductive Tactics in Eurycea Salamanders.

Alternative reproductive tactics are discrete, intrasexual differences in reproductive behaviour within a population. In some cases, these complex phenotypes are determined by autosomal supergenes or sex chromosomes-both of which exhibit reduced recombination and thus enable the linked inheritance of co-adapted alleles from multiple loci. Most alternative reproductive tactics in amphibians are plastic (and reversible), environmentally determined and lacking morphological differentiation, but a striking exception is found in the two-lined salamander (Eurycea bislineata) species complex. In some populations, two distinct male phenotypes coexist: 'searching' males have mental glands, protruding premaxillary teeth and elongate cirri used in terrestrial courtship, while 'guarding' males lack these traits and instead have hypertrophied jaw musculature used in mate guarding at aquatic nesting sites. These tactics differ in many morphological and behavioural phenotypes, but their proximate cause has not yet been described. Here, we generated genome-wide SNP data from > 130 Eurycea cf. wilderae collected from Highlands Biological Station. We provide evidence for an XY sex determination and for a Y-linked polymorphism underlying alternative reproductive tactics in this population. We then develop and validate a PCR-based genotyping assay and apply it to characterise the sex ratio and relative frequency of male tactics from a sample of larvae. Our results add to the growing body of literature exploring the importance of supergenes and sex chromosomes in complex intraspecific polymorphisms, and we highlight opportunities for future work to continue exploring the genomic architecture of these traits.

PERAN ORANG TUA DALAM PENGEMBANGAN SOSIAL EMOSIONAL ANAK DI ERA SOCIETY 5.0

The Society 5.0 era is a concept of a human-centered and technology-based Society , where early childhood is also very close to technology, especially gadgets. This has more or less affected the social emotional development of early childhood. This study aims to determine the role of parents in the development of children's social emotional aspects in the Society 5.0 era and to determine the social emotional aspects of children in the Society 5.0 era using a qualitative descriptive approach to parents who have children aged 4-5 years. Data collection techniques with interviews and observations. The role of parents in the Society 5.0 era has a very influential role in children, differences in children's behavior were found when using technology and their social emotions in parents who play a direct role in children and parents who work and the social emotional aspects of children are currently influenced by the Society 5.0 era which makes children dependent on gadgets so that children are more comfortable alone with gadgets which has an impact on minimal interaction and socializing children with others. The role of parents is very influential in the social emotional development of early childhood, therefore the need for care and guidance for children.

The Impact of the Farming Gardening Project Method Through Moving Classes on the Social and Emotional Behaviour of Kindergarten Age Children

This research problem focuses on the low ability of kindergarten B children in terms of cooperation, helping, discipline, self-confidence, and self-control. So, to overcome this problem, this study aims to analyze the impact of the farming gardening project method through moving classes on improving the social and emotional behavior of kindergarten B children. This type of research is an experiment with a quasi-experimental design. The research subjects comprised 40 kindergarten B children divided into two groups: an experimental group of 20 children and a control group of 20 children. Data collection methods used observation, interviews, and documentation studies. The research instruments included social and emotional behavior observation sheets and interview guides. Data were analyzed using statistical techniques with the help of the SPSS 12.0 for Windows program. The results showed that children in the experimental group who applied the farming gardening project method through moving class significantly improved social and emotional behavior compared to the control group who used conventional learning methods. Statistically, the difference in children's social and emotional behavior between the experimental and control groups was significant for social and emotional behavior. The conclusion of this study shows that the farming gardening project method through moving classes is efficacious in improving the social and emotional behavior of kindergarten B children. The implication of this study is the importance of applying project-based methods in learning activities to stimulate children's social and emotional development holistically.

Behavioral Alterations in Mice Exposed to Manganese via Drinking Water: Effects of Sex and a Lipopolysaccharide Challenge.

Manganese (Mn) is an essential and important metal; however, overexposures lead to adverse neurological outcomes. Nonoccupational Mn overexposure occurs primarily through consumption of Mn-contaminated drinking water (DW). Sex differences in terms of nervous and immune systems' responsiveness to excessive Mn in the DW are understudied. Thus, this study investigated behavioral and sex differences in response to Mn DW treatment (0.4 g Mn/L for up to 8 weeks) and a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge of adult C57BL/6 mice with GFP-tagged monocytes/microglia. After 6 weeks, in motor function tests, Mn exposure resulted in decreased activity and gait deficits. In two different mood tests (open field test [OFT]/elevated zero maze), Mn-exposed mice exhibited decreased fear/anxiety-like behavior. Two weeks after behavioral assessment, when mice were challenged with LPS, circulating inflammatory cytokines, and acute phase proteins increased in both sexes. After 8 weeks of Mn exposure, liver and brain Mn levels were increased, but Mn alone did not affect circulating cytokines in either sex. Notably, Mn-exposed/LPS-challenged males had potentiated plasma cytokine output, whereas the reverse was seen in females. Males, but not females, continued to exhibit increased fearlessness (i.e., increased OFT center time), even when challenged with LPS. Overall, our results show that Mn DW exposure increases brain Mn levels and it leads to behavioral alterations in both sexes. However, males might be more susceptible to the effect of Mn on mood, and this effect is recalcitrant to an inflammagen challenge. Mn augmented post-LPS cytokine production only in males, further indicating that important Mn effects are sex-biased.

How does teaching experience impact brain processes underlying the theory of mind? Study on primary school educators

ABSTRACT Despite its importance for daily social interactions, few studies have explored interindividual differences in the Theory of Mind (ToM) abilities of healthy adults. We used Children’s False-Attribution (CFA), Children’s False-Beliefs (CFB), and Belief-Desire Reasoning tasks, along with fMRI-based assessments, in a comparative analysis of ToM among primary school teachers (PST; n = 27), skilled in social interactions with children, and matched controls (MC; n = 24), who lacked such experience. PST demonstrated slower reaction times than MC in Adult and Child false-belief stories of CFB. However, no other behavioral differences between the groups and between-group differences were observed at the brain level. Both groups presented similar valence ratings for stories in the CFA. Notably, fMRI analysis revealed a group-by-condition interaction effect in the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). In PSTs, OFC activation decreased during negative false-attribution stories regarding children compared to stories related to adults, whereas MC demonstrated an opposite activation pattern. Between-group differences in right lateral OFC activity possibly signify a neural efficiency effect secondary to frequent social interactions of PSTs, unlike the MCs, with children in the working environment. These results underscore the significance of everyday social experiences in the functional plasticity of ToM networks.

Experimental Study of Animal’s Behavior under the Influence of an Electromagnetic Field of the 5G Mobile Communication Standard

A pilot experimental study was carried out to assess the effect of an unmodulated and modulated electromagnetic field of the 5G mobile communication standard on the central nervous system of animals. Mature male Wistar rats were exposed to electromagnetic fields with a frequency of 4.9 GHz and an intensity of 250 MW/cm2 for 15 days for 2 hours a day. The animals of the two irradiated groups and the control group were in identical conditions in a semi-anechoic shielded chamber. The effect of the electromagnetic field on the functional state of the central nervous system was assessed by a comprehensive analysis of behavior patterns in the “open field” test before and after irradiation. The study did not reveal clear differences in animal behavior when exposed to an unmodulated and modulated 5G electromagnetic field. Statistically significant changes in animal behavior were recorded in the dynamics of the experiment in two irradiated and control groups, which may be due to a change in the natural electromagnetic background in a semi-anechoic shielded chamber.

Structural proteins of human coronaviruses: what makes them different?

Following COVID-19 outbreak with its unprecedented effect on the entire world, the interest to the coronaviruses increased. The causative agent of the COVID-19, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus – 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is one of seven coronaviruses that is pathogenic to humans. Others include SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E. The viruses differ in their pathogenicity. SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 are capable to spread rapidly and cause epidemic, while HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E cause mild respiratory disease. The difference in the viral behavior is due to structural and functional differences. All seven human coronaviruses possess four structural proteins: spike, envelope, membrane, and nucleocapsid. Spike protein with its receptor binding domain is crucial for the entry to the host cell, where different receptors on the host cell are recruited by different viruses. Envelope protein plays important role in viral assembly, and following cellular entry, contributes to immune response. Membrane protein is an abundant viral protein, contributing to the assembly and pathogenicity of the virus. Nucleocapsid protein encompasses the viral RNA into ribonucleocapsid, playing important role in viral replication. The present review provides detailed summary of structural and functional characteristics of structural proteins from seven human coronaviruses, and could serve as a practical reference when pathogenic human coronaviruses are compared, and novel treatments are proposed.

Efficacy of 30% silver diamine fluoride compared to atraumatic restorative treatment in arresting dentin caries lesions in preschoolers: a randomized clinical trial.

To compare the efficacy of silver diamine fluoride (SDF) and atraumatic restorative treatment (ART) in arresting caries lesions. Variables such as treatment time, adverse effects/parental aesthetic perception, anxiety and patients' behavior were also evaluated. Children (3.53 ± 1.03 years) with dentin caries lesions on the occlusal surface of primary molars were randomized into test (SDF) and control (ART) groups. To determine the presence of caries, dmf-t and ICDAS indexes were used. Caries lesions were also classified according to activity (active or inactive). The time required to perform treatments was recorded and the children's anxiety was assessed by a Facial Image Scale. The adverse events/aesthetic perception were registered by the operator and caregivers. The Frankl Behavioral Scale assessed patients' behavior. The chi-square/Fisher's exact and Mann-Whitney tests were used for comparisons between the groups. Of the 118 participants who received treatment (SDF, n = 59; ART, n = 59), after 12-month follow-up, 91.5% (43/47) of caries lesions in the SDF and 90.2% (46/51) in the ART group were arrested (p = 1.000). After 24 months, 72% (18/25) were arrested in the SDF group and 95.2% (20/21) in the ART. The treatment times were 6.08 ± 1.72 and 13.58 ± 4.83, for SDF and ART, respectively (p < 0.001). No statistically significant difference of adverse effects, aesthetic perception, anxiety, and patients' behavior were found between the groups. SDF was similar to ART in arresting caries lesion but required less time for treatment. The anxiety, adverse effects/aesthetic perception and patients' behavior were also similar between the groups. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The use of SDF may be a faster and less invasive alternative for the treatment of caries lesions. Clinical trial registration number and date of registration: NCT03063307. September 2016.

Paternal impact on the developmental programming of sexual dimorphism

Sexual dimorphism involves distinct anatomical, physiological, behavioral, and developmental differences between males and females of the same species, influenced by factors prior to conception and during early development. These sex-specific traits contribute to varied phenotypes and individual disease risks within and across generations and understanding them is essential in mammalian studies. Hormones, sex chromosomes, and imprinted genes drive this dimorphism, with over half of quantitative traits in wildtype mice showing sex-based variation. This review focuses on the impact of paternal non-genetic factors on sexual dimorphism. We synthesize current research on how paternal health before conception affects offspring phenotypes in a sex-specific manner, examining mechanisms such as DNA methylation, paternally imprinted genes, sperm RNA, and seminal plasma. Additionally, we explore how paternal influences indirectly shape offspring through maternal behavior, uterine environment, and placental changes, affecting males and females differently. We propose mechanisms modulating sexual dimorphism during development, underscoring the need for sex-specific documentation in animal studies.

Sustainability Practices Among Accounting Students: a Study of SDG Implementation at Universitas Padjadjaran

Objective: This study explores how sustainable lifestyles are cultivated among accounting students and examines the role of the university ecosystem in supporting this behavior. It focuses on the relationship between students' understanding of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their perceptions of university sustainable governance. Theoretical Framework: The study is grounded in sustainable education and governance, emphasizing the university’s role in fostering sustainability through curriculum design and institutional policies. The SDGs are used as a benchmark to evaluate students' awareness and engagement. Method: Data were collected from 88 undergraduate accounting students at Padjadjaran University, Indonesia, via an online survey. Mann-Whitney U-test non-parametric tests were used to identify significant differences in sustainable behaviors across student groups, and multiple regression analysis explored the relationship between sustainable lifestyles, SDG knowledge, and perceptions of university governance. Results and Discussion: The findings show that students have a limited understanding of the SDGs, likely due to a lack of sustainability-focused activities. Their perception of the university’s sustainable governance is moderate, and students have not fully embraced sustainable practices. However, higher SDG knowledge and positive views on governance are associated with more sustainable behaviors. Research Implications: The study highlights the need for integrating SDG-related content into university curricula and improving governance to foster sustainable lifestyle habits. Originality/Value: This research provides empirical evidence on how universities can shape sustainable behaviors, focusing on accounting students in Indonesia.

Fabrication of Porous TiO2 with Aligned Pores Using Tert-Butyl Alcohol Based Freeze Casting

The effect of freezing conditions on the pore structure of porous TiO2 fabricated using a freeze casting process with tert-butyl alcohol slurry was investigated. The raw powder was heat treated to manufacture a porous body with stable shape by suppressing volume change induced by the phase transformation of TiO2 powder. The XRD analysis result indicated that the anatase phase fraction in the raw powder could be converted to 98.6% rutile phase by heating it at 800°C for 30 min. Porous TiO2 ceramics with unidirectionally aligned pore channels were prepared by freezing tert-butyl alcohol slurry containing 10 vol% TiO2 powder under different freezing temperatures of -20, -30 and -40°C, respectively. After removing the frozen tert-butyl alcohol by sublimation in vacuum, the green samples were sintered at 1100°C for 4 h in air. The porous body contains directional pores with a size of approximately 30 µm, and a hexagonal pore shape corresponding to the crystal structure of tert-butyl alcohol was observed in the cross-section of the pores. Small pores were observed at the bottom part of the porous body near the Cu plate where the solidification heat was released, but relatively large pores were present at the upper part. Both microstructure observation and pore size distribution indicated that the pore size and the strut thickness increased significantly with increasing freezing temperature. The change in pore characteristics was explained as being mainly due to the difference in the solidification behavior of the slurry and the rearrangement of the solid powder.

Examination of Sex-Related Differences in Fatigability and Frequency Components of Mechanomyographic Signals During Sustained Exercise

Background: Surface mechanomyographic (sMMG) signals have been used to examine sex-specific differences in the mechanical behavior of muscle during fatiguing exercise. However, studies often utilize simple amplitude- and frequency-based analyses, which only reveal the static components of the sMMG signal. Methods: Thus, a wavelet-based analysis was used to examine changes in the spectral intensity of the non-dominant limb’s vastus lateralis during a fatiguing, maximal, unilateral isometric leg extension in recreationally active men (n = 11) and women (n = 10). Relative changes in spectral intensities and instantaneous mean frequency (IMF) were examined using linear mixed-effect models. Time-to-task failure was compared using an independent sample t-test. Results: The neuromuscular responses demonstrated parallel decreases in IMF (p &lt; 0.001). Further, there were parallel, nonlinear, decreases in spectral intensity across wavelets (p &lt; 0.001) and there were no sex differences in time-to-task failure (p = 0.15). Conclusions: These data showed no sex-specific differences in exercise fatigability or muscle mechanics during fatiguing exercise of the leg extensors. However, when collapsed across sex, wavelet-specific changes in spectral intensity over time reveal novel insights into the interplay between low- and high-frequency components during fatigue.

Turning it on and off: a behavioural and situational comparison of non-fatal violence perpetrated by on- versus off-duty police officers

ABSTRACT Though research into police use of force continues to expand, analysis of off-duty police violence remains deficient and duty status comparisons of police violence are almost non-existent. Some argue that the broader policing context may ‘spill-over’ into off-duty settings, creating a consistency in police behaviour regardless of duty status. Others argue that off-duty police violence is vastly different from on-duty excessive force. The present study aimed to empirically compare extra-legal violence by police officers committed on- versus off-duty, to explore possible duty status differences in behaviours of the offending officers and the victims involved, as well as situational characteristics of the encounters. A sample of 119 cases (61 on-duty and 58 off-duty) of violence by Australian police officers that was determined to have violated law or policy was collected from open access sources (law reports and media articles) and content analysed. Chi-square analysis was used to select variables into three multivariate regression models to predict duty status from offender behaviour, victim behaviour, and individual/situational characteristics. A final regression model then included all resultant significant factors. The primary finding was the consistency across duty status in many aspects, particularly officer characteristics, despite some notable differences in context. The full model showed the factors most predictive of duty status to be offender verbal behaviour and handcuff use, and the situational characteristics of the number of offending officers present and whether the victim had been suspected of a crime. The behavioural consistency across duty status is discussed in terms of spill-over of police violence.

Understanding vaccination behavior of healthcare workers in German hospitals-results from the OKaPII study

Influenza vaccination coverage in Germany is generally low. Even in hospitals, the demand for influenza vaccination is lacking although it has the potential to prevent the spread of the influenza virus and diseases. To take effective actions, adeeper understanding of vaccination behavior of healthcare workers is crucial. OKaPII is an annual German-wide online survey of clinical staff on influenza vaccination. Differences in vaccination behavior were tested for occupation, sex, and age, and differences in knowledge were tested between physicians and nurses. We used logistic regressions to analyze associations between psychological determinants and vaccination behavior among physicians and nursing staff. From 115 clinics, 15,312 employees participated in the survey (17 April to 15 May 2023). In the 2022/23 season, 58.7% of the participants were vaccinated against influenza. The vaccination coverage was 80.7% for physicians and 51.1% for nursing staff . The vaccination behavior of physicians and nursing staff was significantly associated with collective responsibility and confidence in vaccination safety. Of the knowledge items, 87.2% were answered correctly by physicians and 62% by nursing staff. We identified significant differences in vaccine uptake between occupational groups in German hospitals. Low vaccination coverage has existed for years, especially among nursing staff. Tailored interventions should promote the idea of protecting vulnerable people and confidence in the safety of vaccination. Increased education, especially on vaccination safety issues, can have apositive impact on the decision to vaccinate. Possibilities to get vaccinated despite time constraints in the workplace should be provided.

Unreliable service system with strategic customers: effect of abandonments and repair time

AbstractIn this study, we analyze the reneging behavior of strategic customers in a Markovian queueing system with a single server which is subject to breakdowns. In the event of a breakdown, the server is replaced with a secondary backup unit which serves at a diminished service speed. The restoration of the primary unit is possible only when the system is empty and through a repair process. Reneging is possible and the customers may decide to abandon the system at any time. To focus on the effect of reneging, we also consider the case where reneging is prohibited and the customers decide exclusively, whether to join or balk. We also consider the case where the repair duration is instantaneous. For these models, we derive the equilibrium strategies for the customers and evaluate the performance of the system under both scenarios. Moreover, we discuss the effects of the server repairing procedure and present numerical experiments that reveal key differences in the customer strategic behavior. We identify cases where reneging is beneficial in terms of social welfare, as well as cases where prohibiting reneging ensures greater welfare.

Contrasting Kinetics of Highly Similar Chloroalkane Reductive Dehalogenases.

Chloroform and trichloroethanes are pervasive groundwater contaminants for which bioremediation has been an effective treatment strategy. Reductive dehalogenase (RDase) enzymes from organohalide-respiring bacteria are essential for their remediation under anaerobic conditions. RDases are responsible for dehalogenating these chlorinated solvents, leading to their removal. This work explores the kinetic characteristics of three closely related Dehalobacter chloroalkane-reductases─TmrA, CfrA, and AcdA─and identifies differences between their activity on chloroform (CF), 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA), and 1,1,2-TCA. The side-by-side comparison of these enzymes has emphasized that TmrA and AcdA are specialized toward CF with both having a 4-fold higher maximum specific activity (Vmax) on CF than 1,1,1-TCA, whereas CfrA has very similar rates on both CF and 1,1,1-TCA. AcdA is the most sensitive to substrate inhibition by CF and 1,1,2-TCA and inhibition by a common cocontaminant trichloroethene. Finally, the reduction of 1,1,2-TCA, which can produce both 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl chloride, was assessed for each enzyme. Interestingly, each enzyme has a distinct preference for the major product it produces, indicating a favored reaction pathway. Despite over 95% sequence identity, TmrA, CfrA, and AcdA exhibit substantial differences in kinetic behavior, highlighting the importance of understanding such nuances for informed bioremediation strategies.

A game-theoretic driver steering model with individual risk perception field generation

Driver-automation shared steering control (SSC) has emerged as a promising technology for enhancing vehicle safety, but desire to achieve seamless collaboration between the driver and automation requires an in-depth understanding of driver steering behavior in interaction with automation. In this paper, we introduce a game-theoretic driver steering model with individual risk perception field generation. Firstly, a driver risk perception field is developed based on a novel concept of potential injury risk (PIR) to provide a quantitative estimation of the driver’s perceived driving risk. This approach offers an explicit and physically meaningful structure for simulating the driver’s risk perception process and elucidating the reasons for discrepancies in risk perception. Then, this driver risk perception field is integrated into the framework of non-cooperative Nash game to model the steering interaction between the driver and automation, and the analytical expression of Nash equilibrium is derived in detail. The resulting combined driver model effectively captures the driver adaptation at both the control and planning levels. Next, the key parameters of the combined driver model and its comparators are identified using measured driver steering behavior data from thirty subjects in a series of driving simulator experiments. Finally, the effectiveness and superiority of the combined driver model is validated through a comprehensive comparative analysis. The results demonstrate that the combined driver model achieves the lowest prediction errors compared to its comparators and effectively captures the individual differences in risk perception and steering behavior.

Divergence in Regulatory Regions and Gene Duplications May Underlie Chronobiological Adaptation in Desert Tortoises.

Many cellular processes and organismal behaviours are time-dependent, and asynchrony of these phenomena can facilitate speciation through reinforcement mechanisms. The Mojave and Sonoran desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii and G. morafkai respectively) reside in adjoining deserts with distinct seasonal rainfall patterns and they exhibit asynchronous winter brumation and reproductive behaviours. We used whole genome sequencing of 21 individuals from the two tortoise species and an outgroup to understand genes potentially underlying these characteristics. Genes within the most diverged 1% of the genome (FST ≥ 0.63) with putatively functional variation showed extensive divergence in regulatory elements, particularly promoter regions. Such genes related to UV nucleotide excision repair, mitonuclear and homeostasis functions. Genes mediating chronobiological (cell cycle, circadian and circannual) processes were also among the most highly diverged regions (e.g., XPA and ZFHX3). Putative promoter variants had significant enrichment of genes related to regulatory machinery (ARC-Mediator complex), suggesting that transcriptional cascades driven by regulatory divergence may underlie the behavioural differences between these species, leading to asynchrony-based prezygotic isolation. Further investigation revealed extensive expansion of respiratory and intestinal mucins (MUC5B and MUC5AC) within Gopherus, particularly G. morafkai. This expansion could be a xeric-adaptation to water retention and/or contribute to differential Mycoplasma agassizii infection rates between the two species, as mucins help clear inhaled dust and bacterial. Overall, results highlight the diverse array of genetic changes underlying divergence, adaptation and reinforcement during speciation.