Differences In Average Income Research Articles

Flood Risk Assessment Focusing on Exposed Social Characteristics in Central Java, Indonesia

This study analyzes Indonesia, a country marked by significant socioeconomic diversity, to inform the development of holistic flood risk management strategies. We examine the relationship between flood-exposed populations and socioeconomic factors at the regency level, particularly in Central Java, using open data encompassing flood-prone areas, topography, population distribution, and socioeconomic indicators. Key findings include population exposure to flooding varies significantly across the 33 regencies and 7 cities, ranging from 1% to 61% in exposure rate. A notable 5.8-fold difference in average income exists among regencies, with income strongly correlating with higher education rates. Similarly, poverty rates correlate with low educational attainment; there was a very large range in the balance between the size of the exposed economy and the number of exposed poor population in each administrative division. Consequently, we propose a classification system that considers social vulnerability due to poverty, low-education, and economic impacts. The map reflecting these classifications is a risk map that facilitates the understanding of the risk characteristics and the relative risk magnitude of each administrative district. Our analysis underscores the importance of adapting flood risk management strategies to local socioeconomic characteristics and suggests the importance of the use of local wisdom.

Effectiveness of TVET in Nepal

The technical and vocational education and training (TVET) program has been implemented in the country for a long time. Nevertheless, the actual impact it had made on the national economy is unknown. The main objective of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the TVET program in Nepal. The study employed concurrent mixed methods which used both quantitative and qualitative approaches. A retrospective post-then-pre design was used in this study. A total of 21 districts (3 districts from each province) were selected. A survey was conducted with 1,231 Diploma and Pre-Diploma (TSLC) graduates who studied in the institutions either affiliated to or constituent of the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT). Similarly, 42 key informants’ interviews (2 from each district) were conducted with key stakeholders, such as school principals, instructors, and employers. Overall, out of the total graduates, only 8.8% were working before joining TVET, and the remaining 91% did not work, while the percentage of graduates employed during the time of survey was 58.2%. A remarkable difference in average income was found before and after graduation (NRs 1,815 vs NRs 15,656). The income difference was highest among the people who studied engineering (NRs 16,005) followed by health (NRs 14,908). The income of males was 1.6 times higher than that of females after graduation. Current income is higher among graduates from Lumbini Province (NRs 21,427), followed by Province-1 (NRs 20,396). The study revealed that overall, TVET has a positive impact on the society's economy through increased employment opportunities among youths. TVET has been effective in generating employment for many young people, ultimately contributing to elevate the family's economic status, thereby ensuring quality life.

ANALISIS PERBANDINGAN PENDAPATAN USAHATANI JAGUNG HIBRIDA DAN LOKAL DI KECAMATAN PASARWAJO KABUPATEN BUTON

This study aims to determine how much income and the comparison of the average farm income of hybrid corn and local corn in Kombeli Village, Pasarwajo District, Buton Regency. This research was conducted in Kombeli Village, Pasarwajo District, Buton Regency. The selection of the research location was determined purposively with the consideration that the area is one of the centers of corn production in Pasarwajo District, Buton Regency. The population in this study were all farmers who cultivate corn, totaling 30 people. The sample was taken as a whole by the census method, namely 30 farmers with Classified Sampling, which was divided into 2 sample groups, namely A was 15 people doing local corn farming and B was 15 people doing hybrid corn farming. The income analysis method is calculated using the formula: TC1 = TFC1 + TVC1, TR1 = Y1. Py1, Pdi1 = TR1- TC1 and the difference in average income between local maize farming and hybrid maize was used by means of the mean value difference test analysis (t test) with 95% confidence level. The results showed that the average local corn income was 6,827,333.33 with a standard deviation of 1103322,687 while the hybrid corn income was 4,310,000 with a standard deviation of 738047,618 with 15 respondents each. There is a difference in the average income of local and hybrid maize farming with a significance value of 0.000 <0.05, so reject H0 or accept H1. This research study serves to add insight and knowledge of farmers in order to increase corn production as a substitute for rice and also maintain food security and preserve local food. As a study material for stakeholders and stakeholders related to corn cultivation so that farmers will be more prosperous

Group Equity and Implicit Discrimination in Tax Systems

I address some issues in measuring group equity and implicit discrimination and in assessing their role in the evaluation of tax systems, focusing on racial equity in the United States. I argue that group inequity should be judged relative to other accepted objectives of the tax system it may facilitate and stress the importance of having accurate measures of well-being. Finally, I present a decomposition of the difference in groups’ average tax rates into measures of the overall progressivity, group differences in average income, and a set of income-group-specific measures of horizontal group tax differences.

The Gift of Moving: Intergenerational Consequences of a Mobility Shock

Abstract We exploit a volcanic “experiment” to study the costs and benefits of geographic mobility. In our experiment, a third of the houses in a town were covered by lava. People living in these houses were much more likely to move away permanently. For the dependents in a household (children), our estimates suggest that being induced to move by the “lava shock” dramatically raised lifetime earnings and education. While large, these estimates come with a substantial amount of statistical uncertainty. The benefits of moving were very unequally distributed across generations: the household heads (parents) were made slightly worse off by the shock. These results suggest large barriers to moving for the children, which imply that labour does not flow to locations where it earns the highest returns. The large gains from moving for the young are surprising in light of the fact that the town affected by our volcanic experiment was (and is) a relatively high income town. We interpret our findings as evidence of the importance of comparative advantage: the gains to moving may be very large for those badly matched to the location they happened to be born in, even if differences in average income are small.

Proximate sources of growth in neighborhood income segregation: Class-selective migration versus in situ change

The growth in residential segregation by income implies an increase over time in the neighborhood income gap between rich and poor households. This analysis uses data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, in concert with tract-level decennial U.S. census data, to quantify the relative contribution of two proximate sources of this increase: change in the income-class-selectivity of inter-neighborhood migrants and change in the class difference in neighborhood income among non-migrants, or in situ change. Change in the income-class-selectivity of migrants is likely to be particularly important for explaining the increase in the neighborhood income gap among blacks to the extent that declining housing discrimination enables middle-class blacks to access higher-income neighborhoods. Decomposition of the change between 1980 and 1990 in the class difference in neighborhood income shows that, among blacks, the increase in the neighborhood income gap between rich and poor persons is attributable in large measure to a change in migrant selectivity. An increase in the class difference in average income among the destination neighborhoods of short-distance migrants is a particularly important source of the growth in the class difference in neighborhood income among blacks. In contrast, among whites, the bulk of the increase in the class difference in neighborhood income is attributable to a divergence in neighborhood income between rich and poor non-migrants.

ANALISIS PENINGKATAN KESEJAHTERAAN NASABAH TERHADAP PEMBIAYAAN MURABAHAH (Studi Kasus Bank Aceh Syariah Capem Krueng Geukueh)

This study aims to determine differences in income before and after getting murabaha financing at Bank Aceh Syariah Capem Krueng Geukueh. The research method uses quantitative methods with a sample of 45 respondents. Data collection was carried out using a Likert scale questionnaire. Based on the results of the study there is a relationship between welfare and cheap financing at Bank Aceh Syariah Capem Krueng Geukeuh, with the difference in the difference in average income before and after amounting to -8,587 to -7,635. This research is useful for researchers themselves, for banks, for murabaha financing customers, and for future researchers.
 Keywords: welfare, income and murabahah financing

ANALYSIS OF FARM CASSAVA PARTNERSHIP IN THE VILLAGE OF GREAT PUDDING BESAR DISTRICT OF BANGKA

This study aims to describe the implementation of the partnership farming Cassava Village Pudding Besar District of pudding Big Bangka, analyze the differences in average income that is obtained by farmers from various partnership schemes cassava in the village Pudding Besar District of pudding Big Bangka, analyzed the factors - factors that influence farmers' decision in choosing partners and not partner with partnership cassava farm in the village of Great pudding pudding Large District of Bangka. This study was conducted in January 2019 until January 2020 in the village of Great Pudding Pudding Large District of Bangka. The method used is survey method. Penrikan method used example is a method of quota sampling with a sample of two groups of 40 people and the partnering farmers do not partner 40 people. Methods of data analysis using descriptive qualitative, quantitative analsisis (independent sample t-test, binary logistic regression). The results showed the implementation of partnership farming patterns occurring in the village of Great Pudding is a partnership with the name intiplasma KSR Program (Cassava People's Gardens). There is a real difference but not significant, the average income of Rp 32,384,718 partner farmers, while the non- partner farmers Rp 36,751,056 with the difference in the average income of farmers partner and non- partner Rp 4,366,388 per year. Factors that significantly affect farmers' decisions in partnering and partnering as age and availability of capital.

Analysis of income risk of credit use on Arabica coffee plants in North Sumatra

Capital is an important component in Arabica coffee cultivated. Capital is used to meet the costs of caring for coffee plants. Farmers in meeting the need for capital were taking loans by credit. Credit can reduce the risk of income. North Sumatra is one of the Arabica coffee producing provinces in Indonesia. Karo and Dairi Regency are high Arabica coffee producing regions in North Sumatra. The purpose of this research was to analyse the income risk of Arabica coffee credit users in North Sumatra. The research was conducted by interviewing Arabica coffee farmers in Karo and Dairi Regency. The number of respondents was 50 farmers by purposive sampling. The data were analysed by using farm analysis which was then tested by Independent Sample T-Test and risk analysis of coefficient of variation. This research showed that there are differences in average income between credit user farmers and non-credit user farmers. The average income of credit user farmers is 22,418,482 IDR/hectare/year, while the average income of farmers who are not credit user is only 15,153,119 IDR/hectare/year. The risk of income of farmers’ credit user is smaller than farmers’ non-credit user (0.233 < 0.292).

The case for convergence: Assessing regional income distribution in Asia and the Pacific

This paper considers income inequality in Asia and the Pacific, examining whether there has been an increase or decrease in income inequality among countries in the region in recent decades. By analysing the position of countries’ GDP per capita relative to that of a reference economy (Australia), the study finds that between the years 1970 and 2014, most of the region’s less affluent countries were able to catch up in relative terms, allowing them to slowly move up the income matrix towards higher tier groups. Subregional examination reveals that most of the income convergence in the Asia-Pacific region was due to exceptional economic growth in East and North-East Asia and, to a lesser extent, in South-East Asia. While the paper shows that relative income differences between countries in the region have fallen since the 1970s, it points to the need for differentiating between relative and absolute measures of inequality. Insufficient convergence and substantial initial differences in GDP per capita have meant that, despite a decline in relative inequality, absolute differences in average income have grown during the same period.

Evaluating Distributional Differences in Income Inequality

Income and wage inequality between gender and other social groups is commonly evaluated by the difference in average income or the decomposition of the total amount of inequality into between-group and within-group components using an inequality measure such as the Theil index. Either approach ignores the dispersional difference between social groups, often manifested in glass-ceiling and glass-floor effects. The author introduces a refined Theil decomposition that offers two ways of capturing such between-group distributional differences. An analysis of income data from 10 European countries illustrates the usefulness of the proposed evaluation and decomposition methods.

Bilateral trade and similarity of income distributions: The role of second moments

This letter uses an augmented gravity model to revisit the effect of similarity in income distributions on bilateral trade flows. We document a robust new empirical regularity: while differences in average incomes between two countries increase trade, differences in income dispersion reduce it. Our result sheds new light on the Linder hypothesis and stresses the importance of demand-based theories of international trade.

Decomposition procedures for distributional analysis: a unified framework based on the Shapley value

Decomposition techniques are used in many fields of economics to help disentangle and quantify the impact of various causal factors. Their use is particularly widespread in studies of poverty and inequality. In poverty analysis, most practitioners now employ decomposable poverty measures—especially the Foster et al. [10] family of indices—which enable the overall level of poverty to be allocated among subgroups of the population, such as those defined by geographical region, household composition, labour market characteristics or education level. Recent examples include Grootaert [11], Szekely [26], Thorbecke and Jung [28]. Other dynamic decomposition procedures are used to examine how economic growth contributes to a reduction in poverty over time, and to assess the extent to which the impact of growth is reinforced, or attenuated, by changes in income inequality: see for example, Ravallion and Huppi [20], Datt and Ravallion [6] and Tsui [29]. In the context of income inequality, decomposition techniques enable researchers to distinguish the “between-group” effect due to differences in average incomes across subgroups (males and females, say), from the “within-group” effect due to inequality within the population subgroups. Decomposition techniques have also been developed in order to measure the importance of components of income such as earnings or transfer payments.

GDP and Beyond: An Implementation of Welfare Considerations to the Distribution of Earnings in Italy

The aim of this paper is to implement distributional considerations in comparing the economic well-being of individuals over time and living in different regions in Italy. In this sense, the purpose is to implement the recommendations of the Stiglitz’s (2009) report concerning augmenting national accounts by distributional considerations in an easy to implement environment. In order to explore this topic we have made recourse to multiple tools. In the first part of the paper we have looked for second-degree necessary and sufficient conditions for welfare dominance using Absolute Lorenz Curves (ALC) from both a national and regional perspective. In the second part of the paper, we have made recourse to a standard Lorenz Curve (LC) analysis to neutralize differences in average incomes. The third part of the paper introduces the analysis of Gini (ANOGI). We found that differences among subpopulation distributions accentuates over time and that when South and Islands are used as a reference group, North-West and North-East form two relatively more distinct groups.

Income inequality and personality: Are less equal U.S. states less agreeable?

Richard Wilkinson’s ‘inequality hypothesis’ describes the relationship between societal income inequality and population health in terms of the corrosive psychosocial effects of social hierarchy. An explicit component of this hypothesis is that inequality should lead individuals to become more competitive and self-focused, less friendly and altruistic. Together these traits are a close conceptual match to the opposing poles of the Big Five personality factor of Agreeableness; a widely used concept in the field of personality psychology. Based on this fact, we predicted that individuals living in more economically unequal U.S. states should be lower in Agreeableness than those living in more equal states. This hypothesis was tested in both ecological and multilevel analyses in the 50 states plus Washington DC, using a large Internet sample (N = 674,885). Consistent with predictions, ecological and multilevel models both showed a negative relationship between state level inequality and Agreeableness. These relationships were not explained by differences in average income, overall state socio-demographic composition or individual socio-demographic characteristics.

Sustainable Well-Being

![Figure][1] CREDIT: TERI Economic progress achieved since the advent of industrialization has resulted largely from advances in science and technology (S&T). Yet even as society benefits from S&T through choices that we have come to take for granted, decisions on its future are increasingly being questioned and scrutinized. The current path of economic growth deviates from the objectives of sustainable development. It is not only society at large, spearheaded by leaders of public opinion, that is expressing concerns, but also the scientific community itself, which is looking for ways to promote the sustainable well-being of all humanity. This microscopic analysis of science and its applications emanates from several valid concerns: the role of science in the development and extensive use of lethal weapons; the continuing existence of widespread poverty, with over a billion people in the world remaining virtually untouched by the benefits of modern ST and the threat of serious environmental externalities from unprecedented levels of production and consumption of goods and services. ![Figure][1] CREDIT: MIKE HUTCHINGS/REUTERS/LANDOV A meaningful discussion of S&T solutions to contain war, terrorism, and heinous crime cannot be included in this limited space, but the other two issues deserve elaboration. The distinguished economist Kenneth Boulding, a rare intellectual far ahead of his time, pointed out that two centuries earlier, the difference in average income between the poorest country in the world and the most prosperous was no more than 1:5. When he expressed this concern 30 years ago, he estimated it as being 1:50. Income and wealth disparities are even sharper today. Despite astounding progress globally, the S&T gap between rich and poor nations is ironically wider now. If this growing chasm is not bridged, fissiparous tendencies will inhibit and even reverse prospects for enhancing human welfare. Unfortunately, the global community has failed to bring technological opportunities and skills to underprivileged and impoverished communities across the globe. The challenge of widespread worldwide poverty has typically been addressed through doles and handouts as convenient but largely ineffective palliatives. Seldom have programs in this area created avenues for applying modern S&T to develop local skills and capacity, which alone can generate income and employment on a sustainable basis. A program being spearheaded by The Energy and Resources Institute embodies technological innovation in the allied fields of agriculture, energy, natural resource management, and information technology in partnership with local entrepreneurs for the sustainable well-being of rural communities in Asia and Africa. This approach, called Integrating New and Sustainable Technologies for Elimination of Poverty, meets a challenge that could become insurmountable if ignored any longer. Creating opportunities for the productive application of S&T by the most dispossessed communities of the world is a task that scientists and policymakers must embrace with urgency. Among the negative externalities created by human activities, the cumulative emissions of greenhouse gases have had by far the most serious consequence in the form of global climate change. Cuts in emissions of these gases require technological initiatives to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases. Because the impacts of climate change will continue for centuries, adaptation measures will also require the timely application of S&T. However, these will not take place in a policy vacuum. Regulatory and fiscal measures will have to be put in place by governments, facilitated if necessary by multilateral agreements to trigger the development and application of appropriate technological solutions. The agenda for the global scientific community is very clear. We must recognize and evaluate the most critical impediments to the sustainable welfare of human society, including various threats to human life and global peace, disruptions in the delicate balance of Earth's natural systems, and the growing gap between rich and poor. These three sets of conditions are intimately interlinked, requiring a coordinatped approach to solve them. Scientists must work with decision-makers to devise rational policy measures that mobilize desirable responses in the form of development and deployment of suitable S&T solutions in these areas. [1]: pending:yes

AN ESTIMATE OF AVERAGE INCOME AND INEQUALITY IN BYZANTIUM AROUND YEAR 1000

Using recent economic statistics from the peak period of Byzantine political and economic influence, we estimate the average income around the year 1000 to have been about 6 nomismata per capita per annum. This is then translated into current prices using two independent methods. They both yield an estimate around $PPP 640–680 in 1990 international prices. It is argued that this amount is some 20 percent below an average estimate of Roman incomes at the time of Augustus (around year one). Assuming that most of income differences in Byzantium were due to the differences in average incomes between social classes, we estimate the Gini coefficient to have been in the range between 40 and 45.

Comment and Discussion

Comment and Discussion Gary Burtless Gary Burtless: The papers in this volume emphasize cross-border movement of people rather than goods and services. The essay by Devesh Kapur and John McHale asks whether cross-border migration can and should be an alternative route to raising the incomes of people who now reside in poor countries. Lant Pritchett's paper in this volume suggests that the elimination of cross-border barriers to migration can contribute to the equalization of regional incomes in the barrier-free zone. I think his evidence is persuasive in showing that cross-regional differences in average income are much narrower where the legal impediments to migration flows are small. Inward and outward migration makes it possible for regional income differences to shrink in a way that is harder to achieve solely with free cross-border movements of tradable goods and services. Comparing the Dakotas in the 1920s or 1930s with the Dakotas today, one would not claim free migration has been an engine of economic growth or development. On the other hand, it is hard to disagree with Pritchett that free migration has prevented Dakotans' relative incomes from falling as fast as would have been the case if all of them had been fenced in on the short-grass prairie. It may have been a mistake for nineteenth-century Europeans to try to make a living in semiarid grasslands, but given the technology and agricultural prices of the time, the settlers probably enjoyed levels of real income that compared favorably with incomes obtainable elsewhere in the North Atlantic economy. Unfortunately for residents in Divide, Burke, and Mountrail Counties, North Dakota, those days are past. Laborers can now make a better living in places that in the late nineteenth century had much worse prospects than did the northern prairies—places like the Carolinas, Georgia, and south Florida. The message of Pritchett's paper is that, while cross-border mobility may not be an engine of development in lagging areas, it is a driver of cross-region [End Page 173] income equalization. Cross-border mobility has been good for Dakotans, whether they left or stayed in the Great Plains. The paper by Kapur and McHale makes another point. Cross-regional income differences are not only a by-product of economic shocks, like the ones that drained comparative advantage out of the northern prairies. Persistent income differences are also produced by regional and national differences in institutions. I would add they are also the result of differences in social norms, including trust and honest dealing in the market place. Unlike tradable goods and services, which in theory can flow freely across national boundaries, institutions and social norms are pretty much stuck in place. If you want to change institutions or norms, you essentially have two options. You can make revolution where you live. Or you can move someplace else. From the perspective of an individual, the second option is much easier to accomplish than the first. We come now to the modern nation-state, which regards cross-border mobility with deep suspicion. Some countries make it hard for their own citizens to leave, and almost all countries place restrictions on the entry of strangers. I cannot think of a single democracy that prevents its free citizens from leaving, but every modern democracy with the power to do so polices its border to keep the door closed on undesired aliens. "Undesired" for many countries simply means that the entrant wants to stay awhile and make a living. Most countries are happy to entertain well-heeled tourists, the idle rich, and carefully vetted students. They are less happy accepting foreigners who want to dig ditches, pick up garbage, build cars, or compete with their own professors, accountants, and plumbers. Rich democracies do not make a big distinction between migrants who want to work for a few years and those who want to stay indefinitely. Both kinds of immigrants are unwelcome. The wide adoption of barriers to free entry raises the question of their moral legitimacy. Kapur and McHale summarize the debate between political philosophers who argue for different weighting schemes to take account of the interests of citizens and foreigners. Some theorists...

An Estimate of Average Income and Inequality in Byzantium Around Year 1000

Using recent economic statistics from the peak period of Byzantine political and economic influence, we estimate the average income around the year 1000 to have been about 6 nomismata per capita per annum. This is then translated into current prices using two independent methods. They both yield an estimate around $PPP 640-720 in 1990 international prices. It is argued that this amount is some 20 percent below an average estimate of Roman incomes at the time of Augustus (around year one). Assuming that most of income differences in Byzantium were due to the differences in average incomes between social classes, we estimate the Gini coefficient to have been in the range between 40 and 45.

Income differences between central cities and suburbs in Dutch urban regions

The Dutch Government has consistently pursued a policy of keeping income differences in the Dutch population moderate over the last 50 years. This policy also has a geographical component. Funds from the national Municipalities Fund are allotted to local government more or less on the basis of need. Nonetheless substantial differences in average income have emerged between central cities and suburbs during 1946–94. Within the group of 24 metropolitan regions there are three groups of urban regions with a distinctive pattern of central city–suburbs income differences. These patterns are clearly related to the housing strategies pursued by the various city governments over the past decades.