Differences In Foot Research Articles

Effect of training in a sandy environment on foot morphology and function

BackgroundAthletes need to enhance their foot function to improve their performance and prevent injuries and disability. Although foot function is believed to be improved by stabilizing the body on an unstable surface (e.g., a sandy beach), there have been no relevant studies to our knowledge. Here, we identified the differences in foot and balance functions between beach volleyball and volleyball players and investigated the effects of sandy surface training. MethodsWe included six male beach volleyball players (BVB group) and six male volleyball players (VB group). The following six parameters were measured and compared between the groups: foot morphology, plantar surface perception, isometric ankle muscle strength, toe grip strength, static balance, and dynamic balance. ResultsThe BVB group had significantly higher values in sensation perception, isometric ankle dorsiflexion muscle strength, and toe grip strength in the standing posture, with significant intrinsic foot muscle dominance, compared to the VB group. ConclusionPlaying barefoot increases the amount of tactile information received from the surface of the sole, which may lead to enhanced sensory perception by the foot. In addition, owing to the unstable sandy surface, the intrinsic muscles of the foot and lower leg may strengthen to maintain balance; therefore, training on a sandy surface may lead to improved foot and balance functions.

MOVEMENT REGULATION IN DISMOUNTS ON THE BALANCE BEAM

In artistic gymnastics, the apparatus structure is considered an essential constraint in regulating gymnastic skill performance under an operating coupling between perception and action. The question arises of how such regulation processes generalize within gymnastic skills with a similar movement goal but a different structure. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze how a particular environmental constraint (i.e., space available on the balance beam) regulates gymnasts’ performance in skills with a similar movement goal but a different movement structure. Female gymnasts were asked to perform the round-off and the handspring as dismounts on the balance beam in two conditions (baseline vs. reduced space available). Gymnasts exhibited differences in foot positioning between experimental conditions. For both skills, the most significant part of regulation occurred between the starting point and the first step, and a small part of regulation occurred between the first step and the placement of the hands. While for the round-off, another small part of regulation also occurred between the placement of the second hand and landing on the mat, there was virtually no regulation between the placement of the hands and landing on the mat in the handspring. It is concluded that, for gymnasts, adapting to varying constraints from trial to trial can be seen as an essential skill. Implementing these constraints into practice schedules may help develop a broad range of regulation strategies.

Trabecular bone variation in the gorilla calcaneus.

Calcaneal external shape differs among nonhuman primates relative to locomotion. Such relationships between whole-bone calcaneal trabecular structure and locomotion, however, have yet to be studied. Here we analyze calcaneal trabecular architecture in Gorilla gorilla gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei, and G. b. graueri to investigate general trends and fine-grained differences among gorilla taxa relative to locomotion. Calcanei were micro-CT scanned. A three-dimensional geometric morphometric sliding semilandmark analysis was carried out and the final landmark configurations used to position 156 volumes of interest. Trabecular thickness (Tb.Th), trabecular spacing (Tb.Sp), and bone volume fraction (BV/TV) were calculated using the BoneJ plugin for ImageJ and MATLAB. Non-parametric MANOVAs were run to test for significant differences among taxa in parameter raw values and z-scores. Parameter distributions were visualized using color maps and summarized using principal components analysis. There are no significant differences in raw BV/TV or Tb.Th among gorillas, however G. b. beringei significantly differs in z-scores for both parameters (p = <0.0271). All three taxa exhibit relatively lower BV/TV and Tb.Th in the posterior half of the calcaneus. This gradation is exacerbated in G. b. beringei. G. b. graueri significantly differs from other taxa in Tb.Sp z-scores (p < 0.001) indicating a different spacing distribution. Relatively higher Tb.Th and BV/TV in the anterior calcaneus among gorillas likely reflects higher forces associated with body mass (transmitted through the subtalar joint) relative to forces transferred through the posterior calcaneus. The different Tb.Sp pattern in G. b. graueri may reflect proposed differences in foot positioning during locomotion.

Reversing the Mismatch With Forefoot Striking to Reduce Running Injuries.

Recent studies have suggested that 95% of modern runners land with a rearfoot strike (RFS) pattern. However, we hypothesize that running with an RFS pattern is indicative of an evolutionary mismatch that can lead to musculoskeletal injury. This perspective is predicated on the notion that our ancestors evolved to run barefoot and primarily with a forefoot strike (FFS) pattern. We contend that structures of the foot and ankle are optimized for forefoot striking which likely led to this pattern in our barefoot state. We propose that the evolutionary mismatch today has been driven by modern footwear that has altered our footstrike pattern. In this paper, we review the differences in foot and ankle function during both a RFS and FFS running pattern. This is followed by a discussion of the interaction of footstrike and footwear on running mechanics. We present evidence supporting the benefits of forefoot striking with respect to common running injuries such as anterior compartment syndrome and patellofemoral pain syndrome. We review the importance of a gradual shift to FFS running to reduce transition-related injuries. In sum, we will make an evidence-based argument for the use of minimal footwear with a FFS pattern to optimize foot strength and function, minimize ground reaction force impacts and reduce injury risk.

Lower Extremity Injury Rates on Artificial Turf and Natural Grass Playing Surfaces: A Systematic Review

Category:SportsIntroduction/Purpose:Artificial turf (AT) playing surfaces have emerged as a common alternative to natural grass (NG) at all levels of athletic competition from youth to professional. While several prior articles have compared the lower extremity injury rates on AT and NG, the heterogeneity of these studies in terms of design and methodology has led to widely variable results. The purpose of this systematic review was to determine whether any definitive conclusions can be drawn with regard to the risk of lower extremity injury on AT and NG playing surfaces.Methods:A systematic review of the English-language literature was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. All included studies presented a direct comparison of injury rates on AT versus NG playing surfaces. No restrictions were made with regard to sport, level of competition, level of evidence, or year of publication. Studies that examined only head injury rates (e.g. concussions) without any comparison of overall injury rates or lower extremity injury rates were excluded. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were also excluded. The following data elements were extracted from each article: publication year, study design, level of evidence, industry funding, cohort selection process (ad-hoc vs. systematic), sport, level of competition, number of athletic seasons, injury setting, AT type, overall injury rate, knee rate, and foot & ankle injury rate. AT types were classified into Old Generation (1st or 2nd generation) or New Generation (3rd generation or higher).Results:53 articles met inclusion criteria. 31 articles compared overall injury rates on AT versus NG. Roughly one-half of these studies (51.6%) found no significant difference between NG and AT, while roughly one-third (35.5%) found a higher overall injury rate on AT and just 4 studies (12.9%) found a higher overall injury rate on NG. Similarly, of the 26 articles comparing knee injury rates, 14 studies (53.8%) reported no difference between AT and NG, 8 studies (30.8%) reported a higher injury rate on AT, and 4 studies (15.4%) reported a higher injury rate on NG. With regard to foot & ankle injuries, however, a majority of articles (14/24, 58.3%) reported a higher injury rate on AT. Comparatively few articles (3/24, 12.5%) reported a higher foot & ankle injury rate on NG, while the remaining articles (7/24, 29.2%) reported no difference in foot & ankle injury rate between AT and NG.Conclusion:The present study is a systematic review of 53 articles in the English-language literature that compared injury rates on AT and NG. Our findings suggest that the rates of overall injury and knee injury are similar between these two playing surfaces, though AT may be associated with a higher rate of foot & ankle injuries compared to NG.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FOOT POSTURE DEVIATIONS IN YOUNG FEMALE KATHAK AND BHARATNATYAM DANCERS.

Background : Indian classical dance has since long been practised in India. Kathak and Bharatnatyam are two of the commonest dance forms in India which involve taping of the feet. Impact forces produced during dancing may cause biomechanical change in the feet which in turn cause injury to various ligaments, tendons and fascia affecting balance and intricate movements of the feet. Method : Foot evaluation of 44 Kathak Dancers, 44 Bharatnatyam Dancers and 44 Non Dancers in the age group of 15-25 years was done using Foot Posture Index – 6 Scale and the Groups Were Compared using Non Parametric ANOVA Test . Conclusion: There was no significant difference in foot of Kathak and Bharatnatyam Dancers .However Foot of Dancers deviated from that of Non Dancers.

Gender-Related Reporting Within Foot and Ankle Subspecialty Orthopaedic Literature is Lacking

Category:Ankle, Arthroscopy, Hindfoot, Midfoot/Forefoot, TraumaIntroduction/Purpose:Differences in the prevalence of foot and ankle injuries between men and women have been established within the orthopedic literature, but reporting of these differences in treatment outcomes is lacking. The purpose of this study was to determine the trends in reporting of gender-specific outcomes in major orthopaedic foot and ankle related journals over the last 8 years.Methods:The five highest impact orthopaedic foot and ankle and sports specialty journals were selected for review. These included: Foot and Ankle International (FAI), Foot and Ankle Surgery (FAS), American Journal of Sports Medicine (AJSM), Arthroscopy, and Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy (KSSTA). All published issues in 2011 and 2016 were evaluated for the presence of gender-specific analyses by two independent reviewers. Studies were included if they met the following criteria: clinical randomized control studies, prospective studies, and retrospective studies. Case series, review articles, cadaveric studies, biomechanical studies, and animal studies were excluded. Journal article, percentage of female patients, body part evaluated, type of gender-specific analysis, and results of the analysis were recorded and analyzed.Results:A total of 529 studies evaluating a total of 103,099 patients were included in this review (Table 1). In all included studies, an average of 44.7% (46,116 patients) of the population were female. Only 13.6% (72/529) of studies included gender as variable in a multifactorial statistical model. 229 studies were included from 2011 and 300 studies were included from 2016 with only 10.4% (24/229) and 16.0% (48/300) of studies reporting gender specific statistical analysis, respectively (Table 2). There were no journals that demonstrated significant improvements in gender-reported rates from 2011 to 2016 (p=0.07). Twenty-four percent of the studies that performed gender-based statistical analysis demonstrated significant differences between male and female outcomes with the most common difference reported following management of ankle fractures (Table 3).Conclusion:The reporting of gender-specific differences in foot and ankle literature is lacking. Only 13.6% of studies analyzed for gender-specific differences. Within these studies, there has been significant differences in outcomes reported. Understanding these differences is important in order to more effectively manage and treat the male and female populations.

Effect of foot care interventions for older adults using day care services.

AimThis study explored the prevalence of foot problems among older adults and the effectiveness of foot care interventions for improving toe‐gap force and foot flexibility. Foot problems are very common among people aged 65 years and older. However, the effects of foot care interventions on components underlying these issues (i.e., toe‐gap force and foot flexibility) are unclear.DesignThis was a quasi‐experimental study.MethodsEighteen older adults were divided into three groups: medical foot care intervention, combined intervention and control group. The combined intervention group received medical foot care, foot hygiene and five‐toed socks. Toe‐gap force and foot flexibility were measured.ResultsThe most common foot problems were hallux valgus, toe deformities, nail discoloration and thickness and dryness. Significant differences in right foot toe‐gap force were observed between the combined intervention and control groups. There were no significant differences in foot flexibility between groups.

MODIFYING MIDSOLE STIFFNESS of BASKETBALL FOOTWEAR AFFECTS FOOT and ANKLE BIOMECHANICS.

There is a growing incidence of foot injuries in basketball, which may be from the sport's repetitive, forceful multi-directional demands. Modifying midsole stiffness of the basketball shoe has been reported to alter ankle motion and plantar forces to reduce the risk of injury; however, the effects on anatomical, in-shoe foot (metatarsal), motion is not well understood. The purpose of this study was to identify differences in foot and ankle biomechanics between basketball shoes with differing midsole stiffness values during single-leg jump landings. It was hypothesized that a stiffer midsole would elicit lower 1st metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) dorsiflexion angles, higher ankle dorsiflexion angles, and higher plantar forces and relative loading in the distal foot. Experimental cross-sectional study. Twenty high school and collegiate-aged basketball players performed a single-leg side drop jump and a single-leg cross drop jump in a pair of standard basketball shoes and a pair of shoes modified with a fiberglass plate to increase midsole stiffness. Three-dimensional motion analysis and flexible insoles quantified foot and ankle kinematics and plantar force distribution, respectively. Separate 2 (footwear) × 2 (task) repeated measures ANOVA models were used to analyze differences in 1) ankle kinematics, 2) 1st metatarsophalangeal kinematics, 3) maximal regional plantar forces, and 4) relative load. The stiffer shoe elicited decreased peak ankle plantarflexion (mean difference = 5.8 °, p = 0.01) and eversion (mean difference = 6.6 °, p = 0.03) and increased peak ankle dorsiflexion angles (mean difference = 5.0 °, p = 0.008) but no differences were observed in 1st MTPJ motion (p > 0.05). The stiffer shoe also resulted in lower peak plantar forces (mean difference = 24.2N, p = 0.004) and relative load (mean difference = 1.9%, p = 0.001) under the lesser toes. Altering the midsole stiffness in basketball shoes did not reduce motion at the MTPJ, indicating that added stiffness may reduce shoe motion, but does not reduce in-shoe anatomical motion. Instead, a stiffer midsole elicits other changes, including additional ankle joint motion and a reduction in plantar forces under the lesser toes. Collectively, this indicates that clinicians need to account for unintended compensations that can occur throughout the kinetic chain when altering a shoe property to alleviate a musculoskeletal injury. 2b.

PROMIS and FAAM Minimal Clinically Important Differences in Foot and Ankle Orthopedics.

Establishing score points that reflect meaningful change from the patient perspective is important for interpreting patient-reported outcomes. This study estimated the minimum clinically important difference (MCID) values of 2 Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) instruments and the Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM) Sports subscale within a foot and ankle orthopedic population. Patients seen for foot and ankle conditions at an orthopedic clinic were administered the PROMIS Physical Function (PF) v1.2, the PROMIS Pain Interference (PI) v1.1, and the FAAM Sports at baseline and all follow-up visits. MCID estimation was conducted using anchor-based and distribution-based methods. A total of 3069 patients, mean age of 51 years (range = 18-94), were included. The MCIDs for the PROMIS PF ranged from approximately 3 to 30 points (median = 11.3) depending on the methods being used. The MCIDs ranged from 3 to 25 points (median = 8.9) for the PROMIS PI, and from 9 to 77 points (median = 32.5) for the FAAM Sports. This study established a range of MCIDs in the PROMIS PF, PROMIS PI, and FAAM Sports indicating meaningful change in patient condition. MCID values were consistent across follow-up periods, but were different across methods. Values below the 25th percentile of MCIDs may be useful for low-risk clinical decisions. Midrange values (eg, near the median) should be used for high stakes decisions in clinical practice (ie, surgery referrals). The MCID values within the interquartile range should be utilized for most decision making. Level I, diagnostic study, testing of previously developed diagnostic measure on consecutive patients with reference standard applied.

The effect of pointe shoe deterioration on foot and ankle kinematics and kinetics in professional ballet dancers

Dancing en pointe significantly increases the risk of lower limb injuries by placing the foot and ankle joint in unfavorable positions. The pointe shoe, worn predominantly by female ballet dancers may aid movement and acts as a major stabilizer of the foot. The deterioration in pointe shoe structure with excessive wear may increase a dancer’s risk of ankle and foot related injuries by placing excessive load on the joints when the foot is poorly aligned. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in foot and ankle kinetics and kinematics between new and worn pointe shoes. Fifteen professional ballet dancers completed a series of bourreés (walking en pointe) in both new and worn pointe shoes (>20 h wear). Force and pressure analyses determined peak ground reaction force and centre of pressure velocity. A 2D kinematic analysis determined the magnitude of mid-foot flexion and ankle plantarflexion. The worn pointe shoe caused significantly greater mid-foot flexion (P < 0.01) and ankle plantarflexion (P < 0.01) en pointe compared to the new pointe shoe. No significant changes in peak force (P = 0.855) or centre of pressure velocity (P = 0.297) were observed between conditions. The reduced structural integrity of the worn pointe shoe may be a causal factor for kinematic changes and subsequent pain and lower limb injuries in professional dancers.

A cross-sectional observational study comparing foot and ankle characteristics in people with stroke and healthy controls

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore and compare foot and ankle characteristics in people with stroke and healthy controls; and between stroke fallers and non-fallers.Methods: Participants were recruited from community groups and completed standardized tests assessing sensation, foot posture, foot function, ankle dorsiflexion and first metatarsal phalangeal joint range of motion (1st MPJ ROM), hallux valgus presence and severity.Results: Twenty-three stroke participants (mean age 75.09 ± 7.57 years; 12 fallers) and 16 controls (mean age 73.44 ± 8.35 years) took part. Within the stroke group, reduced 1st MPJ sensation (p = 0.016) and 1st MPJ ROM (p = 0.025) were observed in the affected foot in comparison to the non-affected foot; no other differences were apparent. Pooled data (for both feet) was used to explore between stroke/control (n = 78 feet) and stroke faller/non-faller (n = 46 feet) group differences. In comparison to the control group, stroke participants exhibited reduced sensation of the 1st MPJ (p = 0.020), higher Foot Posture Index scores (indicating greater foot pronation, p = 0.008) and reduced foot function (p = 0.003). Stroke fallers exhibited significantly greater foot pronation in comparison to non-fallers (p = 0.027).Conclusions: Results indicated differences in foot and ankle characteristics post stroke in comparison to healthy controls. These changes may negatively impact functional ability and the ability to preserve balance. Further research is warranted to explore the influence of foot problems on balance ability and falls in people with stroke.Implications for RehabilitationFoot problems are common post stroke.As foot problems have been linked to increased fall risk among the general population we recommend that it would be beneficial to include foot and ankle assessments or a referral to a podiatrist for people with stroke who report foot problems.Further research is needed to explore if we can improve functional performance post stroke and reduce fall risk if treatment or prevention of foot problems can be included in stroke rehabilitation.

The association between intersegmental coordination in the lower limb and gait speed in elderly females

Human multi-segmental motion is a complex task requiring motor coordination. Uncoordinated motor control may contribute to the decline in mobility; however, it is unknown whether the age-related decline in intersegmental coordination relates to the decline in gait performance. The aim of this study was to clarify the association between intersegmental coordination and gait speed in elderly females. Gait measurements were performed in 91 community-dwelling elderly females over 60 years old. Foot, shank, and thigh sagittal motions were assessed. Intersegmental coordination was analyzed using the mean value of the continuous relative phase (mCRP) during four phases of the gait cycle to investigate phase differences in foot–shank and shank–thigh motions during a normal gait. The results showed that foot–shank mCRP at late stance had negative correlations with gait speed (r=−0.53) and cadence (r=−0.54) and a positive correlation with age (r=0.25). In contrast, shank–thigh mCRP at late stance had positive correlations with gait speed (r=0.37) and cadence (r=0.56). Moreover, partial correlation, controlling age, height, and weight, revealed that foot–shank mCRP at late stance had negative correlations with gait speed (r=−0.52) and cadence (r=−0.54). Shank–thigh mCRP at late stance had a positive correlation with gait speed (r=0.28) and cadence (r=0.51). These findings imply that the foot–shank and shank–thigh coordination patterns at late stance relate to gait speed, and uncoordinated lower limb motion is believed to be associated with the age-related decline in cadence.

Randomized comparison of tape versus semi-rigid and versus lace-up ankle support in the treatment of acute lateral ankle ligament injury.

PurposeFunctional treatment is the optimal non-surgical treatment for acute lateral ankle ligament injury (ALALI) in favour of immobilization treatment. There is no single most effective functional treatment (tape, semi-rigid brace or lace-up brace) based on currently available randomized trials.MethodsThis study is designed as a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the difference in functional outcome after treatment with tape versus semi-rigid versus lace-up ankle support (brace) for grades II and III ALALIs. The Karlsson score and the FAOS were evaluated at 6-month follow-up.ResultsOne hundred and ninety-three patients (52 % males) were randomized, 66 patients were treated with tape, 58 patients with a semi-rigid brace and 62 patients with a lace-up brace. There were no significant differences in any baseline characteristics between the three groups. Mean age of the patients was 37.3 years (35.1–39.5; SD 15.3). Ninety-five males (49 %) were included. One hundred and sixty-one (59 + 50 + 52) patients completed the study through final follow-up; 32 % lost at follow-up. In two patients treated with tape support, the treatment was changed to a semi-rigid brace because of dermatomal blisters. Except for the difference in Foot and Ankle Outcome Score sport between the lace-up and the semi-rigid brace, there are no differences in any of the outcomes after 6-month follow-up.ConclusionThe most important finding of current study was that there is no difference in outcome 6 months after treatment with tape, semi-rigid brace and a lace-up brace.Level of evidenceI.

The foot posture index in men practicing three sports different in their biomechanical gestures.

The technical gestures characteristic of certain sports may lead to one type of foot being more prevalent than the others. The Foot Posture Index (FPI) has been used as a diagnostic tool for support postures in various sports, but the differences in these postures between sports of distinct gestures in their actions are far from completely understood. The overall FPI, obtained as the sum of the scores of its six individual criteria, was determined in 90 male athletes (30 runners, 30 basketball players, and 30 handball players) in static bipedal stance and relaxed position. Analysis of variance was used to find significant differences among the three sports in the total FPI and its six criteria. The mean ± SD FPI was 2.9 ± 2.8 in runners, 3.9 ± 4.1 in basketball players, and -0.4 ± 6.9 in handball players, with significant differences among these groups (P = .008). Significant differences were also found in the talar head position and talonavicular prominence values between handball players and runners (P = .001 and P = .004, respectively) and between handball and basketball players (P = .002 and P = .006, respectively). Runners and basketball players had neutral feet, whereas handball players had supinated feet. The differences in foot posture seem to be mainly determined by two of the FPI criteria: talar head position and talonavicular prominence.

Adult-Acquired Flatfoot Deformity and Age-Related Differences in Foot and Ankle Kinematics During the Single-Limb Heel-Rise Test

Cross-sectional laboratory study. To compare single-limb heel-rise performance and foot-ankle kinematics between persons with stage 2 adult-acquired flat foot deformity (AAFD) and healthy controls. The inability to perform a single-limb heel rise is considered a positive functional diagnostic test for AAFD. However, which foot motions contribute to poor performance of this task are not known. Fifty individuals participated in this study, 20 with stage 2 AAFD (mean ± SD age, 57.6 ± 11.3 years), and 15 older participants (age, 56.8 ± 5.3 years) and 15 younger participants (age, 22.2 ± 2.4 years) without AAFD as control groups. Forefoot (sagittal plane) and rear foot (sagittal and frontal planes) kinematics were collected using a 3-D motion analysis system. Heel-rise performance (heel height) and kinematics (joint angles, excursions) were evaluated. One-way and 2-way analyses of variance were used to examine differences in heel-rise performance and kinematics between groups. Individuals with AAFD and older controls demonstrated lower heel-rise height than those in the younger control group (P<.001). Persons with AAFD demonstrated higher degrees of first metatarsal dorsiflexion (P<.001), lower ankle plantar flexion (P<.001), and higher subtalar eversion (P = .027) than those in the older control group. Persons with AAFD demonstrated lower ankle excursion (P<.001) and first metatarsal excursion (P<.001) than those in the older control group, but no difference in subtalar excursion (P = .771). Persons with stage 2 AAFD did not achieve sufficient heel height during a single-leg heel rise. Both forefoot and rear foot kinematics in the sagittal plane, as opposed to the frontal plane, contributed to the lower heel height in participants with stage 2 AAFD. Older controls demonstrated lower heel-rise height than younger controls, indicating that clinical expectations of heel-rise performance may need to be adjusted for age.

Movement within foot and ankle joint in children with spastic cerebral palsy: a 3-dimensional ultrasound analysis of medial gastrocnemius length with correction for effects of foot deformation

BackgroundIn spastic cerebral palsy (SCP), a limited range of motion of the foot (ROM), limits gait and other activities. Assessment of this limitation of ROM and knowledge of active mechanisms is of crucial importance for clinical treatment.MethodsFor a comparison between spastic cerebral palsy (SCP) children and typically developing children (TD), medial gastrocnemius muscle-tendon complex length was assessed using 3-D ultrasound imaging techniques, while exerting externally standardized moments via a hand-held dynamometer. Exemplary X-ray imaging of ankle and foot was used to confirm possible TD-SCP differences in foot deformation.ResultsSCP and TD did not differ in normalized level of excitation (EMG) of muscles studied. For given moments exerted in SCP, foot plate angles were all more towards plantar flexion than in TD. However, foot plate angle proved to be an invalid estimator of talocrural joint angle, since at equal foot plate angles, GM muscle-tendon complex was shorter in SCP (corresponding to an equivalent of 1 cm). A substantial difference remained even after normalizing for individual differences in tibia length. X-ray imaging of ankle and foot of one SCP child and two typically developed adults, confirmed that in SCP that of total footplate angle changes (0-4 Nm: 15°), the contribution of foot deformation to changes in foot plate angle (8) were as big as the contribution of dorsal flexion at the talocrural joint (7°). In typically developed individuals there were relatively smaller contributions (10 -11%) by foot deformation to changes in foot plate angle, indicating that the contribution of talocrural angle changes was most important.Using a new estimate for position at the talocrural joint (the difference between GM muscle–tendon complex length and tibia length, GM relative length) removed this effect, thus allowing more fair comparison of SCP and TD data. On the basis of analysis of foot plate angle and GM relative length as a function of externally applied moments, it is concluded that foot plate angle measurements underestimate angular changes at the talocrural joint when moving in dorsal flexion direction and overestimate them when moving in plantar flexion direction, with concomitant effects on triceps surae lengths.ConclusionsIn SCP children diagnosed with decreased dorsal ROM of the ankle joint, the commonly used measure (i.e. range of foot plate angle), is not a good estimate of rotation at the talocrural joint. since a sizable part of the movement of the foot (or foot plate) derives from internal deformation of the foot.

Normative values for the foot posture index between right and left foot: A descriptive study

BackgroundThe foot posture index (FPI) is a commonly used method to quantify standing foot posture. No normative data have, however, been presented to establish the range of a normal difference and asymmetrical differences between FPI score in the right foot and in the left foot. PurposeThe purpose of the present study was to establish normative values for the difference between the FPI scores across the two feet. MethodsAmong 930 healthy adults, FPI score was quantified in both feet. Difference between the two feet was calculated as FPI score on the right foot minus the FPI score on the left foot. Based on a normal distribution of the differences, asymmetry was defined as values below or above one standard deviation (SD) from the mean. Severe asymmetry was below and above ±2SD from the mean. Normal difference was defined as the range between ±1SD. ResultsA reference range for normal difference in FPI score between left foot and right foot was −2 to +2. Asymmetry scores ranged from −2 to −4 and +2 to +4, while severe asymmetry was <−4 and >4. ConclusionNormative values for the difference between FPI scores in right foot and left foot have been presented from a large sample of healthy adults. These normative values can be used to identify a normal difference or an asymmetrical difference in foot posture across feet in one individual.

Movement Regulation of Handsprings on Vault

Purpose: Visual information is utilized in gymnastics vaulting. The question remains as to which informational sources are used to regulate handspring performance. The purpose of this study was to examine springboard and vaulting table position as informational sources in gymnastics vaulting. The hypothesis tested was that the approach-run and handspring kinematics change as a function of the position of the springboard and the position of the vaulting table. Method: Kinematic parameters of 14 female expert gymnasts' approach runs and handsprings on vault were examined, while manipulating the position of the springboard, the position of the vaulting table, or both. Results: The results revealed that feet positioning during the approach run and takeoff varied predominantly as a function of the position of the springboard. The positioning of the hands on the vaulting table varied as a function of the position of the vaulting table. Furthermore, a combined manipulation of both the position of the springboard and the position of the vaulting table led to differences in feet positioning during the approach run and during takeoff, as well as to differences in hand positioning during the repulsion phase and differences in the duration of the second flight phase. Conclusions: Findings suggest that the positions of the springboard and the vaulting table are relevant informational sources in gymnastics vaulting, whereas the effect of both informational sources unfolds on different kinematic parameters. Training programs aiming to enhance gymnasts' ability to use visual information during vaulting may be fruitful in motor skill acquisition in gymnastics.

A Comparison of the Foot and Ankle Condition between Elite Athletes and Non-athletes

[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to compare the foot and ankle condition between elite athletes and non-athletes. [Subjects] The elite athletes group included 85 subjects (28 males and 57 females) and the non-athletes group included 85 subjects (38 males and 47 females). [Methods] All subjects were evaluated for pain (visual analogue scale, VAS) and foot and ankle condition (The Foot and Ankle Disability Index, FADI, and The Foot and Ankle Outcome Score, FAOS). [Results] The elite athlete group showed significant differences from the non-athletes group in VAS, FADI (FADI, FADI-Sports), and FAOS (FAOS-symptoms, FAOS-pain, FAOS-ADL, FAOS-sports, FAOS-QoL). In addition, a meaningful difference in VAS, FADI-Sports, and FAOS-symptoms was observed between gymnasts and wrestlers. [Conclusion] The results of this study suggest the necessity prevention of injury to the foot and ankle of elite athletes, and for the development of exercise for the rehabilitation of foot and ankle injuries, because there is a difference in foot and ankle condition between elite athletes and non-athletes.