Differences In Behavior Research Articles

Fabrication of Porous TiO<sub>2</sub> with Aligned Pores Using Tert-Butyl Alcohol Based Freeze Casting

The effect of freezing conditions on the pore structure of porous TiO<sub>2</sub> fabricated using a freeze casting process with tert-butyl alcohol slurry was investigated. The raw powder was heat treated to manufacture a porous body with stable shape by suppressing volume change induced by the phase transformation of TiO<sub>2</sub> powder. The XRD analysis result indicated that the anatase phase fraction in the raw powder could be converted to 98.6% rutile phase by heating it at 800°C for 30 min. Porous TiO<sub>2</sub> ceramics with unidirectionally aligned pore channels were prepared by freezing tert-butyl alcohol slurry containing 10 vol% TiO<sub>2</sub> powder under different freezing temperatures of -20, -30 and -40°C, respectively. After removing the frozen tert-butyl alcohol by sublimation in vacuum, the green samples were sintered at 1100°C for 4 h in air. The porous body contains directional pores with a size of approximately 30 µm, and a hexagonal pore shape corresponding to the crystal structure of tert-butyl alcohol was observed in the cross-section of the pores. Small pores were observed at the bottom part of the porous body near the Cu plate where the solidification heat was released, but relatively large pores were present at the upper part. Both microstructure observation and pore size distribution indicated that the pore size and the strut thickness increased significantly with increasing freezing temperature. The change in pore characteristics was explained as being mainly due to the difference in the solidification behavior of the slurry and the rearrangement of the solid powder.

Turning it on and off: a behavioural and situational comparison of non-fatal violence perpetrated by on- versus off-duty police officers

ABSTRACT Though research into police use of force continues to expand, analysis of off-duty police violence remains deficient and duty status comparisons of police violence are almost non-existent. Some argue that the broader policing context may ‘spill-over’ into off-duty settings, creating a consistency in police behaviour regardless of duty status. Others argue that off-duty police violence is vastly different from on-duty excessive force. The present study aimed to empirically compare extra-legal violence by police officers committed on- versus off-duty, to explore possible duty status differences in behaviours of the offending officers and the victims involved, as well as situational characteristics of the encounters. A sample of 119 cases (61 on-duty and 58 off-duty) of violence by Australian police officers that was determined to have violated law or policy was collected from open access sources (law reports and media articles) and content analysed. Chi-square analysis was used to select variables into three multivariate regression models to predict duty status from offender behaviour, victim behaviour, and individual/situational characteristics. A final regression model then included all resultant significant factors. The primary finding was the consistency across duty status in many aspects, particularly officer characteristics, despite some notable differences in context. The full model showed the factors most predictive of duty status to be offender verbal behaviour and handcuff use, and the situational characteristics of the number of offending officers present and whether the victim had been suspected of a crime. The behavioural consistency across duty status is discussed in terms of spill-over of police violence.

Understanding vaccination behavior of healthcare workers in German hospitals-results from the OKaPII study

Influenza vaccination coverage in Germany is generally low. Even in hospitals, the demand for influenza vaccination is lacking although it has the potential to prevent the spread of the influenza virus and diseases. To take effective actions, adeeper understanding of vaccination behavior of healthcare workers is crucial. OKaPII is an annual German-wide online survey of clinical staff on influenza vaccination. Differences in vaccination behavior were tested for occupation, sex, and age, and differences in knowledge were tested between physicians and nurses. We used logistic regressions to analyze associations between psychological determinants and vaccination behavior among physicians and nursing staff. From 115 clinics, 15,312 employees participated in the survey (17 April to 15 May 2023). In the 2022/23 season, 58.7% of the participants were vaccinated against influenza. The vaccination coverage was 80.7% for physicians and 51.1% for nursing staff . The vaccination behavior of physicians and nursing staff was significantly associated with collective responsibility and confidence in vaccination safety. Of the knowledge items, 87.2% were answered correctly by physicians and 62% by nursing staff. We identified significant differences in vaccine uptake between occupational groups in German hospitals. Low vaccination coverage has existed for years, especially among nursing staff. Tailored interventions should promote the idea of protecting vulnerable people and confidence in the safety of vaccination. Increased education, especially on vaccination safety issues, can have apositive impact on the decision to vaccinate. Possibilities to get vaccinated despite time constraints in the workplace should be provided.

Unreliable service system with strategic customers: effect of abandonments and repair time

AbstractIn this study, we analyze the reneging behavior of strategic customers in a Markovian queueing system with a single server which is subject to breakdowns. In the event of a breakdown, the server is replaced with a secondary backup unit which serves at a diminished service speed. The restoration of the primary unit is possible only when the system is empty and through a repair process. Reneging is possible and the customers may decide to abandon the system at any time. To focus on the effect of reneging, we also consider the case where reneging is prohibited and the customers decide exclusively, whether to join or balk. We also consider the case where the repair duration is instantaneous. For these models, we derive the equilibrium strategies for the customers and evaluate the performance of the system under both scenarios. Moreover, we discuss the effects of the server repairing procedure and present numerical experiments that reveal key differences in the customer strategic behavior. We identify cases where reneging is beneficial in terms of social welfare, as well as cases where prohibiting reneging ensures greater welfare.

Contrasting Kinetics of Highly Similar Chloroalkane Reductive Dehalogenases.

Chloroform and trichloroethanes are pervasive groundwater contaminants for which bioremediation has been an effective treatment strategy. Reductive dehalogenase (RDase) enzymes from organohalide-respiring bacteria are essential for their remediation under anaerobic conditions. RDases are responsible for dehalogenating these chlorinated solvents, leading to their removal. This work explores the kinetic characteristics of three closely related Dehalobacter chloroalkane-reductases─TmrA, CfrA, and AcdA─and identifies differences between their activity on chloroform (CF), 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA), and 1,1,2-TCA. The side-by-side comparison of these enzymes has emphasized that TmrA and AcdA are specialized toward CF with both having a 4-fold higher maximum specific activity (Vmax) on CF than 1,1,1-TCA, whereas CfrA has very similar rates on both CF and 1,1,1-TCA. AcdA is the most sensitive to substrate inhibition by CF and 1,1,2-TCA and inhibition by a common cocontaminant trichloroethene. Finally, the reduction of 1,1,2-TCA, which can produce both 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl chloride, was assessed for each enzyme. Interestingly, each enzyme has a distinct preference for the major product it produces, indicating a favored reaction pathway. Despite over 95% sequence identity, TmrA, CfrA, and AcdA exhibit substantial differences in kinetic behavior, highlighting the importance of understanding such nuances for informed bioremediation strategies.

A game-theoretic driver steering model with individual risk perception field generation

Driver-automation shared steering control (SSC) has emerged as a promising technology for enhancing vehicle safety, but desire to achieve seamless collaboration between the driver and automation requires an in-depth understanding of driver steering behavior in interaction with automation. In this paper, we introduce a game-theoretic driver steering model with individual risk perception field generation. Firstly, a driver risk perception field is developed based on a novel concept of potential injury risk (PIR) to provide a quantitative estimation of the driver’s perceived driving risk. This approach offers an explicit and physically meaningful structure for simulating the driver’s risk perception process and elucidating the reasons for discrepancies in risk perception. Then, this driver risk perception field is integrated into the framework of non-cooperative Nash game to model the steering interaction between the driver and automation, and the analytical expression of Nash equilibrium is derived in detail. The resulting combined driver model effectively captures the driver adaptation at both the control and planning levels. Next, the key parameters of the combined driver model and its comparators are identified using measured driver steering behavior data from thirty subjects in a series of driving simulator experiments. Finally, the effectiveness and superiority of the combined driver model is validated through a comprehensive comparative analysis. The results demonstrate that the combined driver model achieves the lowest prediction errors compared to its comparators and effectively captures the individual differences in risk perception and steering behavior.

Divergence in Regulatory Regions and Gene Duplications May Underlie Chronobiological Adaptation in Desert Tortoises.

Many cellular processes and organismal behaviours are time-dependent, and asynchrony of these phenomena can facilitate speciation through reinforcement mechanisms. The Mojave and Sonoran desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii and G. morafkai respectively) reside in adjoining deserts with distinct seasonal rainfall patterns and they exhibit asynchronous winter brumation and reproductive behaviours. We used whole genome sequencing of 21 individuals from the two tortoise species and an outgroup to understand genes potentially underlying these characteristics. Genes within the most diverged 1% of the genome (FST ≥ 0.63) with putatively functional variation showed extensive divergence in regulatory elements, particularly promoter regions. Such genes related to UV nucleotide excision repair, mitonuclear and homeostasis functions. Genes mediating chronobiological (cell cycle, circadian and circannual) processes were also among the most highly diverged regions (e.g., XPA and ZFHX3). Putative promoter variants had significant enrichment of genes related to regulatory machinery (ARC-Mediator complex), suggesting that transcriptional cascades driven by regulatory divergence may underlie the behavioural differences between these species, leading to asynchrony-based prezygotic isolation. Further investigation revealed extensive expansion of respiratory and intestinal mucins (MUC5B and MUC5AC) within Gopherus, particularly G. morafkai. This expansion could be a xeric-adaptation to water retention and/or contribute to differential Mycoplasma agassizii infection rates between the two species, as mucins help clear inhaled dust and bacterial. Overall, results highlight the diverse array of genetic changes underlying divergence, adaptation and reinforcement during speciation.

The OHC penalty in the UK: maternal experience and child development

We examine the extent to which experience of out-of-home residential care (OHC) during childhood (ages 0–16) relates to development in the ‘next generation’. Specifically, we ask whether maternal experience of OHC during her own childhood is associated with the behavioural, emotional and cognitive development of her child (age 3), drawing on data collected for the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Comparing the children of OHC experienced mothers with those whose mothers had not spent time in care, we observe stark raw differences between their early development, with children of OHC mothers performing worse across all domains examined – cognitive (language and school readiness), behavioural and emotional adjustment. Using regression analyses, we show that while the disadvantages in cognitive (language) and emotional adjustment among children of OHC experienced mothers are explained by differences in the child’s family demographic characteristics and socio-economic status (SES), the associations between maternal OHC experience and behavioural problems and school readiness remain. Behavioural differences are mediated by aspects of parenting behaviours and the parent–child relationship; school readiness differences are only fully attenuated once maternal health and wellbeing measures are further accounted for. This article highlights the importance of extending support for those with OHC experience into adult life, particularly for those who become parents, and for particular attention to be given to initiatives that nurture parent–child relationships to help break the intergenerational transmission of disadvantage.

Determinants of Consumer’s Adoption of Latest Version Smartphones: An Empirical Study of Saudi Consumers

This empirical study investigates the determinants of the adoption of the latest version of smartphones among Saudi Arabian consumers. Through a quantitative approach and data collected from 377 participants, the research explores factors, such as personal characteristics, social influences, product features, price considerations, social media impact, online purchasing behavior, and the role of advertisements. Descriptive and inferential analyses provide insights into the sample population's demographic profiles and occupational patterns. The ANOVA test evaluated the relationship between various factors and consumer adoption of the latest smartphones. The results indicated no significant difference in the adoption behavior based on the personal characteristics, influence from family and friends, or product features. However, data for other hypotheses were missing, impeding a comprehensive analysis. While the test provided useful understanding, further examination and interpretation are necessary to draw conclusive insights into the factors influencing smartphone adoption. This study contributes valuable knowledge into the complex dynamics of smartphone adoption in Saudi Arabia, offering targeted strategies to manufacturers, marketers, and policymakers, and aiming to enhance market penetration and consumer engagement.

Data-driven analysis identifies novel modulation of social behavior in female mice witnessing chronic social defeat stress

BackgroundChronic social defeat stress is a widely used depression model in male mice. Several proposed adaptations extend this model to females with variable, often marginal effects. We examine if the widely used male-defined metrics of stress are suboptimal in females witnessing defeat. MethodsUsing a data-driven method we comprehensively classified social interaction behavior in 761 male and female mice after chronic social witness/defeat stress, examining social modulation of behavior and associations with conventional metrics (i.e., social interaction (SI) ratio). ResultsSocial stress induces distinct behavioral adaptation patterns in defeated males and witness females. SI ratio leads to underpowered analyses in witness females with limited utility to differentiate susceptibility/resilience. Data-driven analyses reveal changes in social adaptation in witness females that are captured in attenuated velocity change from no target to target tests (ΔVelocity). We explore the utility of this metric in four female social stress models and in male witnesses. Combining SI ratio and ΔVelocity optimally differentiates susceptibility/resilience in witness females and reveals resilient-specific adaptation in a resilience-associated neural circuit in female mice. ConclusionsWe demonstrate that chronic witness stress induces behavioral changes in females that are qualitatively distinct from those observed in defeated males and not adequately sampled by standard male-defined metrics. We identify modulation of locomotion as a robust and easily implementable metric for rigorous research in witness female mice. Overall, our findings highlight the need to critically evaluate sex differences in behavior and implement sex-based considerations in preclinical model design.

Phenotypic and Genomic Insights Into Bacillus spp. and Peribacillus spp. of Spanish Olive Groves With Biotechnological Potential.

Spore-forming organisms are an integral component of the rhizosphere, providing plants with significant advantages. Previous studies determined the antimicrobial activity of the olive sporobiota, identifying five candidates of particular relevance, belonging to the Bacillus subtilis, Peribacillus simplex and Bacillus cereus clade. This study aimed to determine their biotechnological properties, safety aspects, spore structure and resistance, and interaction with the environment through a combined microbiological and genomic approach. We report on the ability of these strains to produce hydrolytic and surface-active enzymes and provide evidence for differences in population behaviour through the formation of strong sessile or floating biofilms. Electron microscopic analysis revealed for the first time the presence of an exosporium layer in olive sporobiota isolates belonging to the P. simplex and B. cereus clade, including numerous pili-like structures on the latter. Spores showed significant differences in their resistance to wet heat, oxidising agents, and UV exposure. Whole genome sequencing of isolate Peribacillus frigoritolerans yielded information on its antimicrobial compound biosynthesis and environmental safety. Overall, our findings provide insights into the phenotypic, morphological and genetic variations of spore-formers from Spanish olive groves, which can be useful for the development of bioactive compounds in sustainable agriculture.

Multiparous ewes have greater mating success when competing with nulliparous ones

The hypothesis of this study was that multiparous ewes are more attractive to rams than nulliparous ewes, leading to more intense courtship and mating displays by rams in competitive environments. Thus, this study aimed to compare the sexual interactions of multiparous or nulliparous estrous ewes tested together or individually with sexually active males. Seven sexually experienced Corriedale rams, 21 multiparous, and 21 nulliparous Corriedale ewes were used. Competitive and individual sexual behavior tests were performed for 3 consecutive days immediately after estrous detection. Seven rams were tested with seven different dyads of one multiparous and one nulliparous female daily, totaling 14 ewes per day. The competitive sexual behavioral test evaluated a ram together in a pen with one multiparous ewe and one nulliparous ewe for 10min. In the individual sexual behavioral test, each ram was tested twice for 10min, with the same multiparous and nulliparous females used in the competitive sexual tests. The sexual behaviors of rams were recorded in both tests, and ewes' behaviors were registered in the competitive sexual tests. During the competitive sexual tests, rams approached, mated, and tended to sniff the multiparous ewes before the nulliparous ewes (p=0.03; p=0.01; p=0.056, respectively). In those tests, rams mated the multiparous ewes more efficiently than nulliparous ones (p=0.002), meaning that rams mounted multiparous fewer times to ejaculate. The number of flehmens and their length were greater in nulliparous than in multiparous (0.01 and 0.002, respectively). The nulliparous ewes urinated more times and tended to do it in greater duration and tended to walk more than the multiparous (p=0.01; p=0.06; p=0.08, respectively). During the individual sexual behavioral tests, rams showed no differences in the sexual behaviors displayed toward multiparous and nulliparous females. In conclusion, multiparous ewes were preferred as sexual partners over nulliparous ewes, with rams showing greater efficiency in ejaculating with multiparous ewes. This increased sexual attractiveness was primarily due to the ewes' attractive signals rather than their proceptive behaviors. However, multiparous and nulliparous ewes were courted and mated similarly when rams had no choice, increasing the likelihood of reproduction in both groups. While nulliparous ewes signaled their reproductive status more frequently through urination, this signal did not compensate for the other signals provided by multiparous ewes, which contributed to their higher sexual attractiveness. These findings offer practical insights, emphasizing the importance of separating multiparous and nulliparous ewes to optimize reproductive outcomes in collective breedings.

Anisotropic compressive deformation behavior of hot-rolled Mg-3Al-0.5Ce alloy

This work investigates the anisotropic compressive deformation of hot-rolled Mg-3Al-0.5Ce alloy and correlates it with microstructure and texture. Hot-rolled alloy had elongated and equiaxed grains with long-aligned Al11Ce3 precipitates within the grain boundaries along rolling direction (RD) and basal texture along normal direction (ND). Analytical and crystal plasticity-based viscoplastic self-consistent predominant twin reorientation (VPSC-PTR) approaches were employed to simulate the flow curve and texture evolution for deeper insight into the deformation behavior. For compression direction (CD)∥to RD and transverse direction (TD), the basal texture was ∼⊥ to CD, which favored {101¯2}〈101¯1〉 extension twins (ET). The ETs nucleate, broaden and engulf the parent matrices with strain, rotating the lattice by ∼86.4∘ about 〈21¯1¯0〉 axes to a geometrically hard orientation with c-axis ∼∥toCD, leading to sigmoidal flow and increasing stage-II strain hardening rate (SHR). However, Al11Ce3 weakened the basal texture intensity, reducing the stage-II strain hardening compared to the single-phase Mg alloy investigated earlier. The presence of Al11Ce3 intermetallics delayed the ET nucleation event, which initiates at ε∼0.018. The ET fraction evolves to ∼0.85, lower than in the previous works on single phase Mg alloy. A reduction in the +ve SHR slope could be observed from ε = 0.03 to 0.06, indicating increased slip activities in this portion of stage-II. Beyond ε = 0.1, decreasing stage-III SHR was observed due to basal 〈a〉, and pyr 〈c + a〉-I and II slip activities in the ET orientation. The difference in the compressive behavior along RD and TD could not be observed due to Al11Ce3 precipitate's morphology with elongation along RD. For CD∥to ND, the compressive flow behavior was parabolic with decreasing SHR due to slip-based deformation. ET didn't form, and the texture change was negligible, with initial and final textures having basal texture ∼∥toCD, the geometrically hard orientation.

Modeling condensation of Methane-Water vapor mixtures in the Hedbäck Nozzle: A comparative study of 2D and 3D geometries

This study investigated the condensation behavior of a binary mixture of methane (CH4) and water vapor (H2O) within the Hedbäck nozzle, employing both 2D and 3D modeling approaches. The 2D model was initially developed to analyze the effects of inlet parameters and mixture’s condensation characteristics. However, the inherent limitations of the 2D model in capturing the full complexity of the flow dynamics prompted a transition to a 3D modeling approach. The research explored two distinct 3D geometries: one created by extruding the 2D section and another by rotating the 2D cross-section around its axis. The latter, which more accurately represented real-world nozzle conditions, revealed differences in flow patterns, condensation behavior, and entropy generation, emphasizing the crucial role of 3D effects in the condensation process. The sensitivity of the numerical simulation results to various nucleation theories and droplet growth models was acknowledged, and the most appropriate theory and model were meticulously selected. This approach minimized discrepancies between numerical modeling outcomes and experimental data, enhancing the accuracy and reliability of the findings. The 2D results indicate a 40.5% increase in the inlet partial pressure with a constant temperature and mass fraction, resulting in a 56% rise in maximum liquid mass fraction. Similarly, a 3.6% decrease in inlet temperature under constant pressure and mass fraction increases the average radius of outlet droplets by more than 13%. In addition, entropy generation analysis revealed that less than 1% of entropy generation is attributed to mean flow, whereas 99% is linked to turbulent fluctuations. Moreover, the 3D models demonstrated markedly different entropy generation rates compared to the 2D model, highlighting the importance of 3D approach for a comprehensive understanding of thermodynamic irreversibility within the system.

Research Progress of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technology and Application in Space: A Review

Metal additive manufacturing in space is a cutting-edge technology that is designed to meet the needs of space exploration and space station construction. This technology is capable of customizing and repairing key metallic parts in a space microgravity environment, providing the feasibility for long-term space tasks. It enables astronauts to perform on-site repairs and replace broken parts, significantly reducing the risk of mission failure on the International Space Station or during future deep space missions. Further, this technique opens new possibilities for constructing space bases by directly utilizing the materials from space, thereby reducing reliance on Earth’s resources. However, metal additive manufacturing in space faces challenges due to the unclear underlying mechanisms that lie in (I) the significant differences in the melting behaviors of materials in a space microgravity environment compared to those on Earth; and (II) extreme environmental factors, i.e., radiation and temperature fluctuations, that influence the metal additive manufacturing process and, consequently, the properties of the manufactured materials. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of those mechanisms underlying metal additive manufacturing in space, based on published works. Emphasis is placed on aluminum, titanium, iron, and copper-based metals. Our work may offer valuable guidance for reducing mission costs, improving safety, and enabling the on-demand production of complex components in the harsh environment of space by using metal additive manufacturing.

Traveling alone, reviewing differently: identifying distinctive hotel evaluation behaviors of solo travelers

ABSTRACT Despite the rise in solo travelers, differences in online review behaviors between solo and companioned travelers remain underexplored. The current research, using the Elaboration Likelihood Model, self-presentation theory, and group polarization theory, finds that solo travelers give higher review scores based on hotel star ratings and value-for-money, but they weigh hotel service quality less than group travelers even after accounting for hotel heterogeneity through multilevel modeling. Additionally, solo travelers’ review scores are less polarized than companioned travelers. These findings offer valuable recommendations for hotel management and targeted marketing strategies aimed at solo travelers.

Capacity optimization of PV and battery storage for EVCS with multi-venues charging behavior difference towards economic targets

Capacity optimization of PV and battery storage for EVCS with multi-venues charging behavior difference towards economic targets

Individual Behavioral Syndromes and Shoal Characteristics in Farmed and Wild Acrossocheilus fasciatus

This study investigates the individual behavioral syndromes and shoal characteristics of farmed and wild populations of the cyprinid Acrossocheilus fasciatus to elucidate the factors influencing the efficacy of fish stock enhancement. We examined two wild populations from Quzhou and Lishui, in Zhejiang Province, China, and one farmed population from the same geographical location as the Quzhou wild population. Individual behavioral syndromes were thoroughly evaluated alongside shoal characteristics. Results indicated that farmed A. fasciatus exhibited greater boldness, exploratory behavior, and sociability compared to their wild counterparts. Wild populations demonstrated distinct behavioral traits, with the Quzhou population showing reduced locomotor activity and sociability, and the Lishui population displaying timidity. Shoal analysis revealed that wild fish had higher cohesion and shoal synchronization compared to farmed fish. Additionally, mixed groups exhibited intermediate locomotor behaviors but decreased cohesion, particularly in the Quzhou population. These findings underscore significant behavioral differences between farmed and wild fish, as well as among wild fish from different geographical locations, emphasizing the need for tailored training and environmental modifications in stock enhancement programs to improve survival.

Multi-view multi-behavior interest learning network and contrastive learning for multi-behavior recommendation

The recommendation system aims to recommend items to users by capturing their personalized interests. Traditional recommendation systems typically focus on modeling target behaviors between users and items. However, in practical application scenarios, various types of behaviors (e.g., click, favorite, purchase, etc.) occur between users and items. Despite recent efforts in modeling various behavior types, multi-behavior recommendation still faces two significant challenges. The first challenge is how to comprehensively capture the complex relationships between various types of behaviors, including their interest differences and interest commonalities. The second challenge is how to solve the sparsity of target behaviors while ensuring the authenticity of information from various types of behaviors. To address these issues, a multi-behavior recommendation framework based on Multi-View Multi-Behavior Interest Learning Network and Contrastive Learning (MMNCL) is proposed. This framework includes a multi-view multi-behavior interest learning module that consists of two submodules: the behavior difference aware submodule, which captures intra-behavior interests for each behavior type and the correlations between various types of behaviors, and the behavior commonality aware submodule, which captures the information of interest commonalities between various types of behaviors. Additionally, a multi-view contrastive learning module is proposed to conduct node self-discrimination, ensuring the authenticity of information integration among various types of behaviors, and facilitating an effective fusion of interest differences and interest commonalities. Experimental results on three real-world benchmark datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of MMNCL and its advantages over other state-of-the-art recommendation models. Our code is available at https://github.com/sujieyang/MMNCL.

Know the signs of autism: One of the fastest growing neurodevelopmental disorder

Autism is a lifetime neurodevelopmental condition. It is identified by difference in behavior, social interaction, communication, special interests and sensory processing. These differences can present people on the autism spectrum with challenges in how they interact with their surroundings. Autism is a complicated condition which affects speech, language, neurodevelopmental, sensory perception and social interaction. Some people on the autism spectrum may behave in non-typical ways, often in response to the different ways in which they experience their surroundings. Such behaviors are generally a way to communicate their feeling or to change to a situation, or may result from their heightened sensitivity to a sound or something they have seen or felt. The researchers suggest that genes and environment play major roles in the causing of ASD. A more recent study examined the cell structure, size and shape of the brains of personals with ASD, they demonstrated that different brain regions showed these differences more profoundly than others.