Sources Of Dietary Salt Research Articles

Soy Sauce Lowers Body Weight and Fat Mass in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Rats.

Soy sauce (SS) is a traditional fermented seasoning. Although fermented foods have diverse health beneficial effects, SS intake has been discouraged because of its high salt level. This study was designed to evaluate the antiobesity outcomes of SS and the potential involvement of salt content in SS by adding a high-salt group. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups: normal diet (ND, 10% fat of total kcal), high-fat diet (HD, 60% fat of total kcal), HD with salt water (HDSW, NaCl = 8%), and HD with SS (HDSS, NaCl = 8%). SS significantly decreased HD-induced body weight gain and lipogenic gene expression without affecting food consumption. Moreover, SS also reduced hepatic injury and lipid accumulation, and also improved hyperlipidemia. Furthermore, SS decreased the mRNA levels related to obesity-derived inflammatory responses, while HDSW did not change the levels of those markers. These observations indicate that SS ameliorates obesity in HD-fed obese rats by attenuating dyslipidemia. Moreover, SS might also have an anti-inflammatory effect in HD-induced obesity, which requires further investigation. Most importantly, SS offers these beneficial effects regardless of its high salt content, implying that different dietary salt sources lead to the distinct health outcomes. In conclusion, the findings of this study improve the understanding of the functional effect of SS.

Knowledge, Attitude and Practices Regarding Dietary Salt Intake among University Students

High salt intake is associated with an increased risk of hypertension, which is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Objective: To investigate the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) for dietary salt intake among university students. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out from The University of Lahore. Total 100 students were selected through non-probability convenient sampling technique. SPSS Version 25.0 was used for data analysis. Inclusion Criteria included participants between the ages of 18 to 30 and also healthy individuals. Results: 40 participants were underweighted, 44 normal-weight, and 16 were over-weight of BMI. 80 respondents were under-graduated and 20 respondents were post graduated, 90 unmarried and 10 married respondents, 83 belonged to middle class, 23 participants felt warning signs before the start of blood pressure. 60 was affecting the quality of life, 28 were affecting on daily activities. In knowledge based, 95% agreed high salt cause health problems, 23 consumed high salt. In Attitude based, 50 participants were right amount of salt, 35 participants consumed salty snacks and 32 consumed pickle foods. In practices based, 31 participants rarely tried to reduce spices, 41 participants were trying to buy low salt foods, 23 consumed or added soy sauce to food at the table, and 20 consumed pasta and noodles less than 1-2 times weekly, 59 consumed fast foods. Conclusions: The study showed that all of the participants consume sauces, pickles and salty snacks which are major dietary sources of salt. Public education initiatives should promote less use of “hidden salt”. High salt intake is associated with an increased risk of hypertension, which is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Objective: To investigate the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) for dietary salt intake among university students. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out from The University of Lahore. Total 100 students were selected through non-probability convenient sampling technique. SPSS Version 25.0 was used for data analysis. Inclusion Criteria included participants between the ages of 18 to 30 and also healthy individuals. Results: 40 participants were underweighted, 44 normal-weight, and 16 were over-weight of BMI. 80 respondents were under-graduated and 20 respondents were post graduated, 90 unmarried and 10 married respondents, 83 belonged to middle class, 23 participants felt warning signs before the start of blood pressure. 60 was affecting the quality of life, 28 were affecting on daily activities. In knowledge based, 95% agreed high salt cause health problems, 23 consumed high salt. In Attitude based, 50 participants were right amount of salt, 35 participants consumed salty snacks and 32 consumed pickle foods. In practices based, 31 participants rarely tried to reduce spices, 41 participants were trying to buy low salt foods, 23 consumed or added soy sauce to food at the table, and 20 consumed pasta and noodles less than 1-2 times weekly, 59 consumed fast foods. Conclusions: The study showed that all of the participants consume sauces, pickles and salty snacks which are major dietary sources of salt. Public education initiatives should promote less use of “hidden salt”.

Evaluation of a state-wide intervention on salt intake in primary schoolchildren living in Victoria, Australia.

In 2015, the Victorian Salt Reduction Partnership launched a 4-year multifaceted salt reduction intervention designed to reduce salt intake by 1 g/d in children and adults living in Victoria, Australia. Child-relevant intervention strategies included a consumer awareness campaign targeting parents and food industry engagement seeking to reduce salt levels in processed foods. This study aimed to assess trends in salt intake, dietary sources of salt and discretionary salt use in primary schoolchildren pre- and post-delivery of the intervention. Repeated cross-sectional surveys were completed at baseline (2010-2013) and follow-up (2018-2019). Salt intake was measured via 24-h urinary Na excretion, discretionary salt use behaviours by self-report and sources of salt by 24-h dietary recall. Data were analysed with multivariable-adjusted regression models. Victoria, Australia. Children aged 4-12 years. Complete 24-h urine samples were collected from 666 children at baseline and 161 at follow-up. Mean salt intake remained unchanged from baseline (6·0; se 0·1 g/d) to follow-up (6·1; 0·4 g/d) (P = 0·36), and there were no clear differences in the food sources of salt and at both time points approximately 70 % of children exceeded Na intake recommendations. At follow-up, 14 % more parents (P = 0·001) reported adding salt during cooking, but child use of table salt and inclusion of a saltshaker on the table remained unchanged. These findings show no beneficial effect of the Victorian Salt Reduction Partnership intervention on children's salt intake. More intensive, sustained and coordinated efforts between state and federal stakeholders are required.

Protocol for the implementation and evaluation of a community-based behavior change intervention to reduce dietary salt intake in India.

Excess dietary salt intake is well established as a leading cause of high blood pressure and associated cardiovascular disease, yet current salt intake in India is nearly 11g per day, more than twice World Health Organization maximum recommended intake of 5g per day. Although dietary survey data from India indicate that the main sources of dietary salt are salt added during cooking at home, and few salt reduction efforts have focused on interventions at the household level. As a result, there is little evidence of the effectiveness of behavior change programs to reduce salt intake at the household level. The study aims to develop and implement a community based behavioral change intervention to reduce salt intake delivered by front line community-based health volunteers; and evaluate the preliminary effectiveness, acceptability, and feasibility of delivering a salt reduction behavior change program and potential to support future scale-up. The study is a pre-post intervention design, and outcomes will be evaluated from a random sample of 1500 participants from 28 villages in two primary health centers in Siddipet, Telangana. Primary outcome is change in salt-related KAB (knowledge, attitude, and behavior) score, and secondary outcomes will be changes in salt intake measured by 24h urinary sodium excretion and change in scores using the subscales of the COM-B ("capability", "opportunity", "motivation" and "behavior") tool. Findings will be used to inform future public health policies to support implementation of scalable community-based interventions to reduce salt intake and control hypertension, the leading-cause of death in India.

Comparative assessment of sources of dietary salt in Armenia

Excessive use of dietary salt is the major cause of high blood pressure (BP), whereas a reduction in salt intake lowers BP, reducing thereby BP-related disease. This paper presents a brief overview of comprehensive reviews and original articles, as well as the World Health Organization reports that highlight the above public health challenge and describe critical elements of successful salt reduction programmes. Also, the study provides experimental data on salt levels in major salt-containing processed foods, commonly consumed in Armenia. Based on average concentrations of salt in foods, the average daily intake of salt from products is calculated using the percent product weight as salt multiplied by the estimated average daily intake of the product. Then, the contribution (%) of each product to daily salt intake is estimated. The main sources of salt consumption, such as bread, cheese, processed meat and preserved vegetables are recommended to be targeted for a salt reduction programme in the country.

Trends in dietary salt sources in Japanese adults: data from the 2007-2019 National Health and Nutrition Survey.

Identifying trends in dietary salt sources is essential for effectively reducing salt/Na intake. This study aimed to examine the trends in dietary salt sources among Japanese adults using the 2007-2019 National Health and Nutrition Survey data collected from 95581 adults aged ≥ 20 years. Dietary intake was estimated using the 1-d household-based dietary record. Foods reported as potential sources of salt intake in Japan and other countries were categorised into twenty-one groups. Salt intake for each food group was adjusted using the density method based on the energy intake. Trends in dietary salt intake based on food sources by sex and age groups (20-39 years, 40-59 years and ≥ 60 years) were analysed using the Joinpoint Regression Program. Salt intake for each age group in both men and women decreased from 2007 (5·3 g/1000 kcal-6·4 g/1000 kcal) to 2019 (4·9 g/1000 kcal-5·6 g/1000 kcal). The major dietary source of salt continued to be seasonings such as soya sauce and soyabean paste (approximately 70 %). Salt intake from seasonings decreased over time in adults aged ≥ 40 years but did not change in those aged 20-39 years. Additionally, a decreasing salt intake from unprocessed fish and shellfish and an increasing salt intake from unprocessed meat were observed across all age categories for both sexes. This study demonstrated that a strategy targeting different age groups may be needed to reduce salt consumption from seasonings among the Japanese population. Further studies on salt content in seasonings and continued monitoring of trends in dietary salt sources are required.

Salt intake and salt-reduction strategies in South Asia: From evidence to action.

The World Health Organization recommends salt reduction as a cost‐effective intervention to prevent noncommunicable diseases. Salt‐reduction interventions are best tailored to the local context, taking into consideration the varying baseline salt‐intake levels, population's knowledge, attitude, and behaviors. Fundamental to reduction programs is the source of dietary salt‐intake. In South Asian countries, there is a paucity of such baseline evidence around factors that contribute to community salt intake. Upon reviewing the electronic literature databases and government websites through March 31, 2021, we summarized dietary salt intake levels and aimed to identify major sources of sodium in the diet. Information on the current salt reduction strategies in eight South Asian countries were summarized, namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. One hundred twelve publications (out of identified 640) met our inclusion‐exclusion criteria for full text review. Twenty‐one studies were included in the review. Quality of the included studies was assessed using the US National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute assessment tool. The primary result revealed that mean salt intake of South Asian countries was approximately twice (10 g/day) compared to WHO recommended intake (< 5 g/day). The significant proportion of salt intake is derived from salt additions during cooking and/or discretionary use at table. In most South Asian countries, there is limited data on population sodium intake based on 24‐h urinary methods and sources of dietary salt in diet. While salt reduction initiatives have been proposed in these countries, they are yet to be fully implemented and evaluated. Proven salt reduction strategies in high‐income countries could possibly be replicated in South Asian countries; however, further community‐health promotion studies are necessary to test the effectiveness and scalability of those strategies in the local context.

Dietary Salt/Sodium Intake Through Consumption of Animal Origin Foodstuffs Available on the Serbian Market

Salt (sodium chloride) was the first and the best recognised food preservative, particularly for meat. The World&nbsp;Health Organization strongly recommends a reduction in sodium intake in adults to less than 2 g/day sodium (5 g/day salt) to reduce&nbsp;blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke and coronary heart disease, as well a reduction in sodium intake in children&nbsp;to control blood pressure. The goal of this paper was to investigate the salt content as labelled on foods of animal origin from the&nbsp;Serbian retail market. The study reviewed a total of 395 foods, of which 16 were meat preparations, 13 were fresh sausages, 31 were&nbsp;finely minced cooked sausages, 16 were coarsely minced cooked sausages, 39 were patés, 21 were canned meats (luncheon meat type),&nbsp;10 were pasteurised ham, 26 were pasteurised smoked meat products, 20 were bacon, 8 were semi-dry fermented sausages, 57 were&nbsp;dry fermented sausages, 28 were dry meat, 15 were prepared meat meals, 18 were soft cheese, 36 were semi-hard cheese, 6 were meat&nbsp;soups, 17 were smoked salmon and 18 were sandwiches. The highest declared salt contents are labelled on thermally untreated meat&nbsp;products, i.e. dry meat, bacon, dry and semi-dry fermented sausages and smoked salmon. Pasteurised and sterilised meat products have&nbsp;lower salt contents declared on labels. It was concluded that meat products examined in this study are important sources of dietary salt,&nbsp;and that consumption of 100 g of these products can largely meet daily dietary requirements for salt/sodium. Due to that, it is necessary&nbsp;to reduce salt/sodium content in these foods by decreasing amounts of salt used during production and by using salt substitutes, such&nbsp;as salt with potassium.Keywords: salt, sodium, meat products, daily requirements.

Dietary Sources of Salt in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Literature Review.

Rapid urbanization in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is transforming dietary patterns from reliance on traditional staples to increased consumption of energy-dense foods high in saturated fats, trans fats, sugars, and salt. A systematic literature review was conducted to determine major food sources of salt in LMICs that could be targeted in strategies to lower population salt intake. Articles were sourced using Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, and grey literature. Inclusion criteria were: reported dietary intake of Na/salt using dietary assessment methods and food composition tables and/or laboratory analysis of salt content of specific foods in populations in countries defined as low or middle income (LMIC) according to World Bank criteria. Of the 3207 records retrieved, 15 studies conducted in 12 LMICs from diverse geographical regions met the eligibility criteria. The major sources of dietary salt were breads, meat and meat products, bakery products, instant noodles, salted preserved foods, milk and dairy products, and condiments. Identification of foods that contribute to salt intake in LMICs allows for development of multi-faceted approaches to salt reduction that include consumer education, accompanied by product reformulation.

Sources of Dietary Salt in North and South India Estimated from 24 Hour Dietary Recall.

Recent data on salt intake levels in India show consumption is around 11 g per day, higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended intake of 5 g per day. However, high-quality data on sources of salt in diets to inform a salt reduction strategy are mostly absent. A cross-sectional survey of 1283 participants was undertaken in rural, urban, and slum areas in North (n = 526) and South (n = 757) India using an age-, area-, and sex-stratified sampling strategy. Data from two 24-h dietary recall surveys were transcribed into a purpose-built nutrient database. Weighted salt intake was estimated from the average of the two recall surveys, and major contributors to salt intake were identified. Added salt contributed the most to total salt intake, with proportions of 87.7% in South India and 83.5% in North India (p < 0.001). The main food sources of salt in the south were from meat, poultry, and eggs (6.3%), followed by dairy and dairy products (2.6%), and fish and seafood (1.6%). In the north, the main sources were dairy and dairy products (6.4%), followed by bread and bakery products (3.3%), and fruits and vegetables (2.1%). Salt intake in India is high, and this research confirms it comes mainly from added salt. Urgent action is needed to implement a program to achieve the WHO salt reduction target of a 30% reduction by 2025. The data here suggest the focus needs to be on changing consumer behavior combined with low sodium, salt substitution.

Salt Content in Traditional and Nontraditional Breads in Yazd City, Iran, 2015-2016

Background: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of premature death in the 21st century. Dietary factors, such as high salt intake, are related to increased risk of CVDs{Akpolat, 2009 #21}. One of the main sources of dietary salt is bread. On the other hand, salt content is a quality indicator of bread. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the salt content in a variety of consumed breads in Yazd city, Iran. Methods: This study was a cross sectional research conducted in Yazd. The list of the bakeries obtained from their industry office. Ten percent of about 600 bakeries in Yazd (62 bakeries; 2 samples in each bakery) were selected using simple random sampling based on sample frame of ID number of each bakery. Finally, 9 types of bread included in this study. Sodium content was measured using flame photometer method. Salt content in breads was reported in each 100 g bread. Results: It was found that Nan-Taftoon Tanuri is the most popular bread among traditional breads in Yazd (45.2%). It had significantly more salt than Nan-Fantezi and Nan-Sangak (P &lt; 0.02). Also, Nan-Sangak had the least salt among traditional breads. However, the mean salt of traditional breads was more than the standard level (1g salt/100g bread (P &lt; 0.0001). Conclusion: The current study showed that the mean salt content of traditional breads was significantly more than the standard level. Furthermore, Nan-TaftoonTanuri had significantly more salt than others, such as Nan-Fantezi and Nan-Sangak.

Salt intake and dietary sources of salt on weekdays and weekend days in Australian adults.

To assess if there is a difference in salt intake (24 h urine collection and dietary recall) and dietary sources of salt (Na) on weekdays and weekend days. A cross-sectional study of adults who provided one 24 h urine collection and one telephone-administered 24 h dietary recall. Community-dwelling adults living in the State of Victoria, Australia. Adults (n 598) who participated in a health survey (53·5 % women; mean age 57·1 (95 % CI 56·2, 58·1) years). Mean (95 % CI) salt intake (dietary recall) was 6·8 (6·6, 7·1) g/d and 24 h urinary salt excretion was 8·1 (7·8, 8·3) g/d. Mean dietary and 24 h urinary salt (age-adjusted) were 0·9 (0·1, 1·6) g/d (P=0·024) and 0·8 (0·3, 1·6) g/d (P=0·0017), respectively, higher at weekends compared with weekdays. There was an indication of a greater energy intake at weekends (+0·6 (0·02, 1·2) MJ/d, P=0·06), but no difference in Na density (weekday: 291 (279, 304) mg/MJ; weekend: 304 (281, 327) mg/MJ; P=0·360). Cereals/cereal products and dishes, meat, poultry, milk products and gravy/sauces accounted for 71 % of dietary Na. Mean salt intake (24 h urine collection) was more than 60 % above the recommended level of 5 g salt/d and 8-14 % more salt was consumed at weekends than on weekdays. Substantial reductions in the Na content of staple foods, processed meat, sauces, mixed dishes (e.g. pasta), convenience and takeaway foods are required to achieve a significant consistent reduction in population salt intake throughout the week.

Dietary Sources of High Sodium Intake in Turkey: SALTURK II.

Previous research has shown daily salt intakes in Turkey to be far above the recommended limits. Knowing the sources of dietary salt could form a basis for preventive strategies aimed towards salt reduction. This study aimed to investigate dietary sources of salt in Turkey. A sub-group (n = 657) was selected from the PatenT2 study population, which represented the urban and rural areas of 4 major cities (Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, and Konya). A questionnaire inquiring about sociodemographic characteristics, medical histories, detailed histories of diet, and salt consumption was completed. Participants were asked to collect a 24-h urine sample and to record their food intake (dietary recall) on the same day. Of 925 participants selected, 657 (71%) provided accurate 24-h urine collections, based on creatinine excretion data. The mean daily 24-h urinary sodium excretion was 252.0 ± 92.2 mmol/day, equal to daily salt intake of 14.8 ± 5.4 g. Of the 657 participants with accurate 24-h urine collections, 464 (70%) provided fully completed dietary recalls. Among these 464 participants, there was a significant difference between the 24-h urinary sodium excretion-based salt intake estimation (14.5 ± 5.1 g/day) and the dietary recall-based salt intake estimation (12.0 ± 7.0 g/day) (p < 0.001). On the other hand, a positive correlation was obtained between the dietary recall-based daily salt intake and 24-h urinary sodium excretion-based daily salt intake (r = 0.277, p < 0.001). Bread was the main source of salt (34%) followed by salt added during cooking and preparing food before serving (30%), salt from various processed foods (21%), and salt added at the table during food consumption (11%). Conclusively, this study confirmed a very high salt intake of the adult population in four major cities in Turkey. The present findings support the emerging salt reduction strategy in Turkey by promoting lower salt content in baked bread, and less salt use in habitual food preparation and during food consumption in the home.

A Study of Salt Content of Different Bread Types Marketed in Amman, Jordan

&lt;p&gt;Noncommunicable diseases, including cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of premature death in the 21st century. Dietary factors such as high salt intake constitute the main risk factors. Bread is considered as one of the most important sources of dietary salt. The objectives of this study were to determine the sodium content of the main types of bread that are marketed in Amman, and to evaluate the bakers’ adherence to the Jordanian specifications. Sixty eight bread samples of seven types of bread were collected from 13 different bakeries distributed in Amman. Bread samples were dried, ashed and the sodium content was directly determined by using flame photometry method. The average salt content of the analyzed bread samples was 1.19±0.21 g salt/100 g of fresh bread, ranging between 0.42 g/100 g for white Arabic bread and 2.06±0.19 for &lt;em&gt;shrak&lt;/em&gt; bread. Approximately half of bread samples have met the Jordanian specifications. It is concluded that salt content of bread varies widely in Jordan and that bread types such as &lt;em&gt;shrak&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;mashrouh&lt;/em&gt; breads contain high amount of salt. The Jordanian specification of the salt content of bread should be applied to all breed types. Also, it should be reduced gradually to a lower limit.&lt;/p&gt;

Shifting human salty taste preference: Potential opportunities and challenges in reducing dietary salt intake of Americans.

Dietary salt reduction of Americans has been a focus of public health initiatives for more than 40 years primarily due to the association between high salt intake and development of hypertension. Despite past efforts, salt intake of Americans has remained at levels well above dietary recommendations, likely due in part to the hedonic appeal of salty taste. As such, in 2010 the Institute of Medicine suggested a strategy of gradual salt reduction of processed foods, the primary source of Americans' dietary salt intake, via an approach intended to minimize impact on consumer acceptability of lower-sodium foods. This brief review discusses the ontogeny and development of human salt taste preference, the role of experience in shifting salt preference, and sources of dietary salt. Our current understanding of shifting human salt taste preference is discussed within the context of potential opportunities for success in reducing dietary salt, and gaps in the research that both limit our ability to predict effectiveness of gradual salt reduction and that need be addressed before a strategy to shift salt preference can realistically be implemented.

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Consumption and sources of dietary salt in family members in Beijing.

In China, few people are aware of the amount and source of their salt intake. We conducted a survey to investigate the consumption and sources of dietary salt using the “one-week salt estimation method” by weighing cooking salt and major salt-containing food, and estimating salt intake during dining out based on established evidence. Nine hundred and three families (1981 adults and 971 children) with students in eight primary or junior high schools in urban and suburban Beijing were recruited. On average, the daily dietary salt intake of family members in Beijing was 11.0 (standard deviation: 6.2) g for children and adolescents (under 18 years old), 15.2 (9.1) g for adults (18 to 59 years old), and 10.2 (4.8) g for senior citizens (60 years old and over), respectively. Overall, 60.5% of dietary salt was consumed at home, and 39.5% consumed outside the home. Approximately 90% of the salt intake came from cooking (household cooking and cafeteria or restaurant cooking), while less than 10% came from processed food. In conclusion, the dietary salt intake in Beijing families far surpassed the recommended amounts by World Health Organization, with both household cooking and dining-out as main sources of salt consumption. More targeted interventions, especially education about major sources of salt and corresponding methods for salt reduction should be taken to reduce the risks associated with a high salt diet.

Nutritional Epidemiological Tools for Sodium Intake

Dietary sodium is a determinant of blood pressure. Modern diets provide excessive amounts of salt, and in developed and developing countries the intake of processed foods with high salt levels is increasing. In order to establish effective nutrition policy, it is necessary to know the quantity of consumed salt as well as identify the main dietary sources of salt. Different methods are currently in use for estimating dietary sodium intake. The use of 24-hour urinary collection to assess sodium intake is considered the most accurate method but involves considerable burden for participants. The use of the spot urine method has been proposed as an alternative however in not recommended without calibration methodology. Sodium estimates based on dietary surveys include several methods such the 24-hour dietary recall, the food frequency questionnaire, and the diet record, with often under-estimates intake due to under-reporting and difficulties quantifying sodium in concentration discretionary salt and recipes. Food compositions databases and nutritional softwares can be used to assess sodium consumption. More research is necessary to improve nutritional epidemiological tools for sodium intake

Rural Latino caregivers' beliefs and behaviors around their children's salt consumption

Background: Prevalence of high blood pressure has been increasing in U.S. children, with implications for long term health consequences. Sodium consumption, a modifiable risk factor for high blood pressure, is above recommended limits and increasing. Very little is known about Latino caregiver beliefs and behaviors around their children's salt consumption. Methods: In California's Central Valley, qualitative interviews in Spanish investigated low-income caregivers' views and understandings of their children's dietary salt consumption. Thirty individual interviews and 5 focus groups were conducted (N=61). Interview transcripts were translated and transcribed, coded and thematically analyzed. Results: Seven primary topic areas around children's salt intake and its impact on health were identified: children's favorite foods, children's dietary salt sources, superiority of home-cooked foods, salty and sweet foods, managing salt for health, developing children's tastes, and adding salt added at the table. Parents recognize common sources of sodium such as “junk food” and processed food and made efforts to limit their children's consumption of these foods, but may overlook other significant sodium sources, particularly bread, cheese, prepared soups and sports drinks. Caregivers recognize excess salt as unhealthy for children, but don't believe health problems (like high blood pressure) can occur in young children. Nevertheless, they made efforts to limit how much salt their children consumed through a variety of strategies; school meals were a source of high sodium that they felt were outside of their control. Conclusion: Latino caregivers are concerned about their children's salt intake and attempt to limit consumption, but some common sources of sodium are under-recognized.

Salt Intake of Children and Adolescents in South London

Since 2003/2004, the United Kingdom has implemented a salt reduction campaign; however, there are no data on salt intake in children as assessed by 24-hour urinary sodium, the gold standard method, to inform this campaign. We performed a cross-sectional study, involving South London school children across 3 age tiers: young children (5- to 6-year olds), intermediate-aged children (8- to 9-year olds), and adolescents (13- to 17-year olds). Dietary salt intake was measured by 24-hour urinary sodium excretion and compared with newly derived maximum salt intake recommendations. In addition, dietary sources of salt were assessed using a 24-hour photographic food diary. Valid urine collections were provided by 340 children (162 girls, 178 boys). The mean salt intakes were 3.75 g/d (95% confidence interval, 3.49–4.01), 4.72 g/d (4.33–5.11), and 7.55 g/d (6.88–8.22) for the 5- to 6-year olds, 8- to 9-year olds, and 13- to 17-year olds, respectively. Sixty-six percent of the 5- to 6-year olds, 73% of the 8- to 9-year olds, and 73% of 13- to 17-year olds had salt intake above their maximum daily intake recommendations. The major sources of dietary salt intake were cereal and cereal-based products (36%, which included bread 15%), meat products (19%), and milk and milk products (11%). This study demonstrates that salt intake in children in South London is high, with most of the salt coming from processed foods. Much further effort is required to reduce the salt content of manufactured foods.