Diapiric Processes Research Articles

Building and reworking of Archean continental crust in the nucleus of the Yangtze Craton: Constraint from 3.4 Ga and 2.94 Ga granitoid gneisses in the Southern Kongling Complex

The TTG gneisses, a dominant lithological assemblage within Archean cratonic provinces, provide a window into the early evolution of the continental crust. The Kongling complex in South China preserves voluminous Archean granitoids, recording the early formation and evolution history of the Yangtze Craton. We present results of a comprehensive study involving field investigation, petrographic characterization, zircon U–Pb geochronology and Lu-Hf isotope tracing, and whole-rock geochemistry for the Archean granitoid gneisses from the Southern Kongling Complex. Igneous zircons from two granitic gneisses yielded weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb ages of 3399 ± 15 Ma (MSWD = 0.99, n = 24) and 3389 ± 12 Ma (MSWD = 1.02, n = 20). Zircons from the 3.4 Ga granitic gneiss also record a ca.3.0 Ga anatexis event which is contemporaneous with the widespread granitoid gneisses in the Kongling Complex. Geochemical and zircon Hf isotope data (εHf(t) values of − 3.41 to + 0.77 and two-stage Hf model ages of 3.65–3.80 Ga) for the granitic gneisses support a derivation from pre-existing Eoarchean (TDM2 = 3.73 Ga) crust. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating yielded emplacement ages of 2948 ± 17 Ma for a migmatized trondhjemitic gneiss, and 2928 ± 14 Ma for a quartz monzonite gneiss. These two gneisses have similar zircon Hf model ages (TDM2 = 3.45 Ga) and both were emplaced during a major phase of mafic magma diapiric process that significantly reworked the old crust. The occurrences of 2.94 Ga trondhjemite and associated mafic blocks suggest intra-crustal differentiation by partial melting of low-K mafic rocks. We suggest that intra-crustal remelting and differentiation played a key role in the formation, evolution, and maturation of the micro-continents in Kongling during the Paleo- to Meso-Archean. The whole-rock geochemical and zircon Hf isotopic compositions of the different generations of granitoid gneisses from the Southern Kongling Complex are similar to those of the coeval gneisses (3.45 Ga and 2.95 Ga) from the northern part of the Kongling Complex, indicating a common tectono-magmatic history shared by both segments tracing back to as early as 3.4 Ga. The Archean granitoid gneisses from the Kongling Complex record remelting and differentiation of Eo- to Paleo-Archean crusts during the Paleo- to Meso-Archean, implying that Eoarchean crust is likely to have been preserved within the Kongling complex.

Fluid venting submarine structures in the middle slope of the Spanish continental margin of the Gulf of Cádiz: Geomorphology, internal structure, benthic features and control factors

This paper explains the current seafloor morphology and processes that affect the formation and evolution of three mud volcanoes and one mud volcano/mud diapir complex in the deepest sector of the Spanish margin of the Gulf of Cádiz. The present study provides novel results and interpretations based on an extensive multidisciplinary data set. New high resolution bathymetric and backscatter data from multibeam echosounders enabled a detailed geomorphological analysis aimed at identifying diverse seafloor features in the different edifices studied and their adjacent bottoms. These features are mainly related to fluid escape (e.g., mud volcanoes, mud flows and depressions), gravitational (e.g., slide deposits and scars), and tectonic (e.g., faults and uplifted antiforms) processes. Very high-resolution parametric profiles and single channel seismic reflection profiles were interpreted for further analysis of the internal structures, demonstrating their important interplay with diapiric processes. Box-corer and gravity-corer have been used to identify different sediment types that have been correlated with backscatter values. The dominant benthic species associated with fluid venting and also with different types of substrates (hard and soft) were characterized using submarine images obtained with an underwater camera deep-towed sled. The benthic species observed were contrasted, and added to those collected with beam trawl and box-corer for characterisation of the benthic and demersal communities. Different geological and biological indicators have been used as proxies of the interaction of these features with the geological processes (such as fluid-escape-related, gravitational, or structural) to characterise the environmental conditions that determine the geomorphology, substrates, habitats and their associated biota. Multivariate analyses combining faunistic and environmental data resulted in the presence of 3 main faunistic assemblages linked to different levels of fluid venting and the importance of depth and variables linked to fluid venting processes (e.g. mud breccia, Methane-derived authigenic carbonates) in the distribution of these assemblages. A conceptual model has been proposed to explain the actual seafloor morphology and the different processes that affect the formation and evolution of the fluid venting submarine structures studied.

Geochemistry of Gede Volcanic Complex West Java, Indonesia, Compared to Salak Volcano as its Proximity and how The Ciletuh Mélange Complex Lineament Affected It

‘Mélange’ has been used to indicate a larger spectrum of chaotic rock bodies formed in various and different tectonic settings (rift–drift cycles, oceanic subduction, continental collision, and intracontinental deformation) by tectonic, sedimentary, and diapiric processes and their mutual interaction. Two well-known mélanges in Java Island are Ciletuh mélange in Sukabumi and another in Karangsambung, Kebumen. Previous studies suggest those mélanges are connected and indicate the Early Cretaceous Sundaland boundary elongated from Ciletuh, Karangsambung, and up until Meratus in Southeast Kalimantan. The Gede Volcanic Complex (GVC) and Salak Volcano of the Sunda island arc (West Java, Indonesia) are Quaternary volcanoes that lie geographically on the Early Cretaceous Sundaland boundary. An indication of crustal assimilation related to the Ciletuh Mélange complex has been observed by previous research. Therefore, this research intended to further investigate whether GVC and Salak are affected by that boundary through an igneous petrogenetic approach.This research uses geochemical data (major and trace elements) proceeded by various discrimination diagrams to account for the tectonic conditions of the Gede Volcanic Complex and Salak Volcano. Products from both GVC and Salak are all sub-alkalis rocks that came from active continental plate margins. Geochemical analysis shows that one metabasalt sample from Ciletuh Mélange Complex has the same characteristics to anomalies found at GVC by being an island arc tholeiite. Meanwhile, anomalies at Salak could be explained by its location being on top of the Meratus lineament that might contain granitic deposits.

The Mabja Dome Structure in Southern Tibet Revealed by Deep Seismic Reflection Data and Its Tectonic Implications

AbstractThe ongoing India‐Asia collision has led to the formation of the northern Himalayan gneiss domes belt in southern Tibet. The domes are the result of the ongoing convergence and were formed by geological processes that may include crustal thickening, metamorphism, partial melting, and exhumation of middle crustal rocks to the surface. A combination of compressional, extensional, and diapiric processes has been invoked to explain the formation and evolution of these domes. Differentiating among these competing hypotheses requires well‐defined geophysical images of the internal structure of the domes. The Mabja dome is the largest dome within the northern Himalayan gneiss domes belt. A 70‐km long deep seismic reflection profile across Mabja dome was acquired in 2016. The seismic data could provide new information about the structural elements beneath the domes to the depth of 25 Km. We address the structure of the Mabja dome by conducting an integrated analysis of shallow crustal velocity structure and a normal‐incidence seismic reflection image of deeper crust. Our work suggests that the Mabja dome is underlain by shear zones at depths of 10–15 km and two high‐velocity bodies at depths of 3 km possibly representing the eclogitic‐facies rocks or mafic intrusions. We propose that the dome formation may have been controlled by collision‐induced north‐south shortening expressed by thrust stacking of middle crustal rocks, which led to the doming of the upper‐crustal rocks. The proposed mechanism inferred for Mabja dome can be applied to interpret the widespread domes throughout the southern Tibet and other related structures in orogenic mountain belts.

Internal structure of the Paleoarchean Mt Edgar dome, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia

The Paleoarchean East Pilbara Terrane of Western Australia is a dome-and-keel terrane that is often highlighted as recording a vertically convective tectonic regime in the early Earth. In this model, termed 'partial convective overturn', granitic domes diapirically rose through a dense, foundering mafic supracrustal sequence. The applicability of partial convective overturn to the East Pilbara Terrane and to other Archean dome-and-keel terranes is widely debated and has significant implications for early Earth geodynamics. A critical data gap in the East Pilbara Terrane is the internal structure of the granitic domes. We present field-based, microstructural, and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) data collected within the Mt Edgar dome to understand its internal structure and assess its compatibility with existing dome formation models. Field and microstructural observations suggest that most fabric development occurred under submagmatic and high-temperature solid-state conditions. The AMS results reveal a coherent, dome-wide structural pattern: 1) Sub-vertical lineations plunge radially inward towards the center of the dome and foliations across much of the dome consistently strike northwest; 2) Shallowly plunging lineations define an arch that extends from the center of the dome to the southwest margin; and 3) Migmatitic gneisses, which represent the oldest granitic component of the dome, are folded and flattened against the margin of the dome in two distinct lobes. The structural relationships between rocks of different ages indicate that units of different crystallization ages deformed synchronously during the last major pulse of granitic magmatism. These data are broadly consistent with a vertical tectonics model, and we synthesize our structural results to propose a three-stage diapiric evolution of the Mt Edgar dome. The critical stage of dome development was between 3.3 and 3.2 Ga, when widespread, melt-assisted flow of the deep crust led to the formation of a steep-walled, composite dome. These data suggest that diapiric processes were important for the formation of dome-and-keel terranes in the Paleoarchean.

Contractional salt-tectonic system in the south Dezful embayment, Zagros

The Dezful embayment in Zagros has traditionally been interpreted as a typical fold belt with multiple detachment levels, including a lower detachment at the basement-cover interface and an upper detachment along the Miocene Gachsaran halite-bearing evaporites. This paper constrains diapiric processes in the Gachsaran detachment coeval with regional shortening that resulted in complex and hitherto unstudied salt structures and flanking synclinal minibasins. In this paper, well-tied seismic interpretation is integrated with field and remote-sensing mapping, cross-section construction, and stepwise tectono-sedimentary restoration. The results indicate that after the deposition of Mishan–lower Aghajari pre-kinematic overburden sediments, detachment folding initiated above the Gachsaran evaporites during late Tortonian times as a result of regional shortening. The salt-cored anticlines later actively pierced their roof to subsequently rise as passive diapirs and evolve into salt walls. Synclinal minibasins developed due to salt evacuation into flanking walls during the deposition of the Lahbari Mb. in Messinian–Pliocene. Remarkable sedimentary thickening and lateral shifts in minibasin depocenter towards the salt walls, accompanied by overturned collars and hook halokinetic sequences, are diagnostics of near-surface, syndepositional passive growth of diapirs during this stage. From Pliocene to recent, the major episode of regional shortening has squeezed these precursor salt walls to form thrust-welds. In conclusion, the well-exposed structures of south Dezful show an early shortening stage, then a transition to a combination of shortening and passive diapirism, and final thrusting along diapirs. This evolution model may be more common in other salt-influenced fold-thrust belts than is currently recognized.

Mélange development in the Neyriz region of Zagros Orogen, Iran: Record of convergence and collision in the Neotethyan Realm

AbstractMélanges are formed by sedimentary, tectonic and diapiric processes and are generally found in collisional belts. The Zagros Orogeny provides an intriguing geological laboratory for the study of mélange‐forming processes during the progressive tectonic evolution of the Neotethys Ocean. Different types of tectonic and sedimentary mélanges occur in specific structural positions within the Zagros orogenic belt in the Neyriz Region (Iran). Based on their block‐in‐matrix fabrics, and tectonostratigraphic positions, we differentiated 14 different mélange types, which mark different episodes of the tectonic evolution of the Neyriz Region from the Cretaceous subduction to the Miocene collision. The Cretaceous subduction stage is recorded by volcanic‐sedimentary mélanges (Mv). Sedimentary mélanges characterized by megabreccia from the Cretaceous limestone (Ms1) and Eocene polymictic megabreccia (Ms2) represent epi‐nappe mélanges formed during the Palaeocene–Eocene in wedge‐top basins. The ophiolite emplacement in the Oligocene resulted in local extensional tectonics in the upper part of the ophiolitic nappe, and deposition of a polymictic megabreccia (Ms3, Ms4). As the final production of the Neotethys Ocean closure and the Eurasian‐Arabian collision, the sedimentary mélanges characterized by different types of chaotic rock units (Ms5, Ms6, Ms7 and Ms8 facies) were developed in front of the Cretaceous–Eocene nappes due to growth of the orogenic wedge in the Miocene. Our findings indicate that the recognition and distinction of different types of mélange may provide additional constraints for a better understanding of the tectono‐sedimentary evolution of the Neotethyan region.

Polygenetic mélanges: a glimpse on tectonic, sedimentary and diapiric recycling in convergent margins

A significant part of mélanges recognized in exhumed convergent margins around the world has been recently documented to have chiefly originated from masse transport and subsurface remobilization and disruption (i.e. mélanges, from sedimentary and mud–serpentinite diapiric processes and from in situ fluidification–disruption). Tectonic and/or sedimentary processes occurring during subsequent multiple deformational events of convergent margin evolution commonly overprint and significantly rework the primary (sedimentary or diapiric) mélange fabric, forming polygenetic mélanges. This ultimately complicates their distinction from true tectonic mélanges, masking part of the recorded tectono-sedimentary evolution of the associated convergent margin. The contributions gathered in this thematic collection explore with different approaches (from field structural and stratigraphic observations to geophysical analyses) different types of polygenetic mélange, at various scales, around the world. These studies conclude that the understanding of this type of mélange may provide crucial insights for a more detailed interpretation of the evolution of ancient and modern convergent margins, and of processes and mechanisms triggering potential natural hazards (earthquakes and tsunamis). Case studies include the Apennines in the Central Mediterranean region, the Carpathians in Central Europe and the Nankai Prism in Japan. Thematic collection: This article is part of the ‘Polygenetic mélanges: a glimpse on tectonic sedimentary and diapiric recycling in convergent margins’ collection available at https://www.lyellcollection.org/cc/polygenetic-melanges

Origin of Mélanges of the Franciscan Complex, Diablo Range and Northern California: An Analysis and Review

The Franciscan Complex of California is characterized in part by the presence of mélanges. In general, mélange origins are attributed to sedimentary, tectonic, or diapiric processes—or a combination of these. Published reviews list the main features of mélanges characteristic of each type of origin. In this review, particular diagnostic features typical of sedimentary, tectonic, and diapiric mélanges are used to assess 15 specific mélanges, which in some cases have been interpreted in contrasting ways in the literature. The data do not support the view that most Franciscan mélanges were formed by sedimentary processes, but rather that both tectonic and sedimentary processes are important. There is little evidence that diapirism contributed significantly to Franciscan mélange genesis. Tectonic features present in most mélanges of subduction accretionary complexes create challenges in assessing mélange-forming processes. Notably, although tectonic overprints commonly mask the primary diagnostic fabric of sedimentary mélanges, some diagnostic features—such as depositional contacts, fossils in mélange matrix, and interlayering of mélange and non-mélange units—are critical to recognition of mélanges of sedimentary origin.

Collision, mélange and circular basins in north Borneo: A genetic link?

Attention has been given to the relevance of chaotic rock units including tectonic, sedimentary, and diapiric mélanges in the evolution of subduction-related accretionary complexes but they have often been perceived as relicts in suture zones. Northwest Borneo (West Sabah) was evidently a subduction complex which experienced collision caused by the Proto-South China Sea, and a consequence of post-collision intrusion currently expressed as a 4000-metre high mountain, together with gravity tectonics offshore of Palawan and Borneo. The continuous deformation of the accretionary wedge from the collision to the post-collision stages is, however, a matter of contention, along with the timing as subduction ceased. This study integrates the seismic profiles, field observation and topographic interpretation to show that the backstop is composed of ultramafic rocks and a vast amount of severely sheared pillow basalts and radiolarite. Wide shear-bands also exhibit metric phacoid-shaped blocks of basalt and radiolarite. Successor basins cover these collision features to the west, and through a system of circular basins overlying a shale matrix, engulfing metric blocks of basalts, radiolarite and sandstone. The chaotic rock unit was occasionally brought to the surface and the overlying strata are deformed as circular synclines and anticlines. We, therefore, suspect that the mechanism of exposing the mélange involved a diapiric process that pushed this low viscosity material upward. Accordingly, the entire process illustrates a tectonic evolution involving gravity tectonics from the end of the collision to the post-collision setting of northern Borneo.

Folding, thrusting and diapirism: Competing mechanisms for shaping the structure of the north Dezful Embayment, Zagros, Iran

AbstractDifferentiating compressional growth strata from halokinetic sequences is not straightforward in foreland fold‐and‐thrust belts where compressional and diapiric processes were coeval. Although there are numerous studies on the role of salt layers in fold‐and‐thrust belts, very few focus on syntectonic evaporites where they are thick enough to develop diapirism. The tectonic structures of the northern Dezful Embayment, along the footwall of the Zagros Mountain Front Fault, show a complex evolution interpreted in this study by the concurrence of folding, thrusting and pre‐ and syn‐shortening diapirism of the lower Miocene Gachsaran evaporites. We explore this tectonic–diapiric–sedimentary interplay by combining field studies and remote‐sensing mapping, detailed stratigraphy and sedimentology, high‐quality seismic data, and step‐by‐step balanced tectono‐sedimentary restorations. Initial diapirism occurred soon after the deposition of at least 1.5 km thick Miocene Gachsaran evaporites during the sedimentation of up to 5 km thick Aghajari, Lahbari and Bakhtyari formations, which display syntectonic mixed growth strata and halokinetic sequences. These sedimentary sequences filled salt‐related minibasins, from which the Azanak Minibasin is the deepest, limited by growing salt walls and salt anticlines (Azanak thrust‐weld and the Saland–Lali anticline). Palaeocurrents and clasts compositions document fluvial diversions and exposure and erosion of Gachsaran evaporites along the active salt walls. Although, by further shortening, the precursor salt walls squeezed and reactivated as thrust‐welds structuring a duplex of overriding minibasins. During the deposition of the middle‐late Miocene Aghajari Formation, Kazhdumi and Pabdeh source rocks were buried to oil‐expulsion depths, and Sarvak and Asmari reservoirs were mildly folded in large and open anticlines. The Gachsaran system in the northern Dezful Embayment is collated with the structures of preshortening Hormuz salt and syn‐shortening Fars salt to highlight the important role of these ductile units in the tectonic evolution of the Zagros fold belt that is compared to syn‐compressional salt‐related Pyrenees, Carpathians, Sivas and Kuga fold belts.

Glacially influenced morphodynamic features – examples from the north Faroe margin

High resolution reflection seismic data, subbottom profiler and side scan sonar information, together with results from sediment core studies, have been used to study various glacially influenced morphodynamic features on the northern Faroese continental margin. On the shelf and upper slope a thick, buried turbate complex has been found, which we estimate to have been formed between ca 470,000 and 120,000yearsBP. We interpret this turbate to be the result of episodic, extensive iceberg grounding during extreme glaciation within the period MIS 12–MIS 6 (Elster-Saale complex). Late MIS 6 is found to be the most likely age of the last episode of turbate formation as suggested by age/depth correlation with dated sediment cores from the nearby area. The origin of the iceberg turbate may be attributed to deglacial drift of deep-draft icebergs from icestream sources in the Arctic, East Greenland and/or northern Iceland. At the base of slope and adjacent deep-water area a complex of mud diapir features has been observed. Our data show that activation of these features are the result of density inversion processes caused by fine-grained, unconsolidated hemipelagic deposits being overlain by dense, glacigenic North Sea Fan (NSF) deposits. Due to sudden and fast accumulation of the fan sediments, a normal and regular compaction and dewatering of the underlying hemipelagic sediments could not occur; instead, sub-seabed sediment mobilisation took place resulting in enhanced diapir formation. A general intensification of the diapiric processes is likely related to the MIS 6 (Saalian) glacial period, as NSF-derived glacigenic debris flows reached the northern outlet of the Faroe-Shetland Channel. The most recent diapir activity is concluded to have occurred during the last (Weichselian) glaciation.

An evaporite‐bearing accretionary complex in the northern front of the Betic‐Rif orogen

AbstractThe Guadalquivir Accretionary Complex forms a largely oblique prism at the northern edge of the Betic‐Rif orogen, where Miocene sediments plus allochthonous evaporite‐bearing units were accreted during the displacement of the Alborán Domain toward the west. Traditional interpretations end the tectonic structuring of the Betic Cordillera at the present topographic front, beyond which gravitational and/or diapiric processes would predominate. However, this study shows pervasive tectonic deformation in the outer prism with coherent oblique shortening kinematics, which is achieved through an alternation of roughly N‐S arcuate thrust systems connected by E‐W transfer fault zones. These structures accord well with the geophysical models that propose westward rollback subduction. The main stage of tectonic activity occurred in the early‐middle Miocene, but deformation lasted until the Quaternary with the same kinematics. Evaporite rocks played a leading role in the deformation as evidenced by the suite of ductile structures in gypsum distributed throughout the area. S‐ and L‐ gypsum tectonites, scaly clay fabrics, and brittle fabrics coexist and consistently indicate westward motion (top to 290°), with subordinate N‐S contraction almost perpendicular to the transfer zones. This work reveals ductile tectonic fabrics in gypsum as a valuable tool to elucidate the structure and deformational history of complex tectonic mélanges involving evaporites above the décollement level of accretionary wedges.

A juvenile oceanic island arc origin for the Archean (ca. 2.97 Ga) Fiskenæsset anorthosite complex, southwestern Greenland: Evidence from oxygen isotopes

The Archean (ca. 2.97 Ga) Fiskenæsset layered intrusion, southwestern Greenland, consists of an association of anorthosite, leucogabbro, gabbro, hornblendite, pyroxenite, peridotite and dunite. The intrusion is characterized by well-preserved igneous layering, cumulate texture and primary igneous minerals including olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, hornblende and chromite. We use new whole-rock (n=36) and mineral (n=32) oxygen isotopic data for all major lithologic units from the best preserved stratigraphic section of the Fiskenæsset Complex at Majorqap qâva to revisit geodynamic and petrogenetic hypotheses proposed for the origin of Archean terranes. The Fiskenæsset Complex has modern mantle-like whole-rock O-isotope compositions (δO18=5.8±0.5‰). Average δO18 values increase from peridotite (δO18=5.0‰), through hornblendite (δO18=5.7‰), gabbro (δO18=5.8‰), pyroxene hornblendite (δO18=6.0‰) and leucogabbro (δO18=6.3‰), to anorthosite (δO18=6.3‰). These whole-rock isotopic compositions reflect the approximate modal abundances of olivine (average δO18=4.9‰), hornblende (average δO18=5.7‰), clinopyroxene (average δO18=6.4‰) and plagioclase (average δO18=6.4‰) in each rock type, as a consequence of mineral fractionation in the magma chamber(s). Field relationships and the absence of crustal contamination suggest that the Fiskenæsset Complex formed in an oceanic setting. Subduction zone-like whole-rock trace element signatures and mantle-like δO18 and initial εNd values are consistent with formation of these rocks in a juvenile oceanic island arc setting. Field and geochemical data from the Fiskenæsset region and adjacent terranes suggest that the origin of Archean crust in southwestern Greenland is consistent with Phanerozoic-like plate tectonic processes rather than density-driven sinking, delamination and diapiric processes requiring formation of greenstone belts and anorthosite complexes on pre-existing continental crust. Mantle-like δO18 values in the ca. 2.97 Ga Fiskenæsset Complex are inconsistent with substantial recycling of continental crust, indicating that the Fiskenæsset rocks originated distal from continental sources.

티모르섬 충돌 동시성 멜란지의 산상 및 기원

보보나로 멜란지는 인도-호주판과 유라시아판의 경계부에 위치한 세계적으로 가장 젊은 충돌 동시성 멜란지 중 하나이다. 이 멜란지는 신제3기에 시작된 호주 대륙의 연변부와 반다 호와의 충돌로 인해 형성되었으며, 티모르섬의 전역에 걸쳐 분포한다. 티모르섬 남부 수아이 지역은 호주 대륙 기원 암체, 반다 호 기원 암체, 충돌 동시성 보보나로 멜란지, 그리고 충돌 동시성 퇴적층까지 다양한 지층들이 분포하고 있어, 멜란지와 다른 지구조 단위의 기원적 상관관계를 파악하는데 적합한 지역이다. 본 연구에서는 수아이 지역에서 수행한 1:25,000 규모의 정밀 지질조사 결과를 토대로 보보나로 멜란지의 내부 구조적 특성 및 공간적 분포 양상을 제시하고 그 기원에 대해 토의한다. 수아이 지역에 분포하는 보보나로 멜란지는 주로 적갈색 및 녹회색을 띠며 변성작용을 받지 않은 비늘모양 점토 기질과 대부분 인접한 지역의 지층들에서 유래한 다양한 종류의 암편들로 구성된다. 주변암과의 관계가 비교적 명확한 멜란지 노두에서 인지되는 내부 구조적 특징은 보보나로 멜란지가 '다이아피릭 멜란지', '지구조 멜란지' 그리고 혼합 과정 없이 지층교란에 의해 형성된 '깨진 지층'으로 구성됨을 지시한다. 또한 공간적 분포 특성은 보보나로 멜란지가 호주 대륙기원 암체 하부의 곤드와나 대지층군과 더불어 이를 충상하는 반다 호 기원 지층들까지 모두 절단하며 관입하고 있음을 나타낸다. 연구지역에서 파악되는 노두 규모의 내부 구조적 특징 및 광역적 분포 특성을 기존에 제시된 멜란지 형성 모델들과 결부하여 고려하였을 때, 보보나로 멜란지는 대부분 곤드와나 대지층군으로부터 점토물질이 유래한 다이아피릭 멜란지로 형성되었으며 멜란지의 형성 및 진화에 단층활동이 지속적으로 영향을 미친 것으로 판단된다. 본 연구 결과는 현생 부가체-충돌대에서 다이아피릭 멜란지가 주요한 구성 요소임을 잘 보여준다. 이는 오래된 부가체-충돌대에 발달하는 멜란지의 기원을 해석함에 있어서도 다이아피릭 프로세스를 주요한 인자로 고려해야함을 지시한다. The Bobonaro m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange is one of the youngest syn-collisional m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>langes, located between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. The m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange has formed in association with a collision between the Australian continental margin and the Banda arc initiated in Neogene. The Suai area at the southern part of Timor is a good place to examine the genetic relationship between the m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange and other rock sequences because various tectonostratigraphic units coexist in the area. In this study, we present the structural characteristics and spatial distribution of the Bobonaro m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange investigated as a part of 1:25K scale geologic mapping in the area, and discuss on the origin of the m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange. The Bobonaro m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange in the Suai area is composed of unmetamorphosed clay matrix and blocks of various lithologies. The clay matrix mainly is reddish brown or greenish gray in colour, and has scaly texture. Most blocks are allochthonous, but mostly derived from nearby formations. Based on the internal structure and relationship with surrounding rocks, the Bobonaro m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange is genetically classified into 1) diapiric m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange; 2) tectonic m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange; and 3) broken formation. The spatial distribution of the Bobonaro m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange indicates that it intruded all pre-collisional units including the lower Australian continental margin unit(Gondwana megasequence) and the Banda arc unit. Taking the field evidences and previous genetic models into consideration, the Bobonaro m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange is interpreted to be mainly formed as a diapiric m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange originated from Gondwana megasequence, consistently effected by faulting events. This study reflects that diapiric m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange is a significant component in recent accretionay-collision belts. It suggests that diapiric process should be considered as a main genetic factor even in ancient m<TEX>$\acute{e}$</TEX>lange.

Polygenetic deformation resulting from interaction of karstic, diapiric and tectonic processes in Early Pleistocene sediments of the central Ebro Basin (Spain)

Polygenetic deformation resulting from interaction of karstic, diapiric and tectonic processes in Early Pleistocene sediments of the central Ebro Basin (Spain)

Mechanisms and processes of stratal disruption and mixing in the development of mélanges and broken formations: Redefining and classifying mélanges

The terms mélange and broken formation have been used in different ways in the literature. The lack of agreement on their definition often leads to confusion and misinterpretations. An evaluation of the various uses of these terms allows us to consider several types of chaotic rock bodies originated by tectonic, sedimentary and diapiric processes in different tectonic settings. Our review of stratal disruption and mixing processes shows that there exists a continuum of deformation structures and processes in the generation of mélanges and broken formations. This continuum is directly controlled by the increase of the degree of consolidation with burial. In tectonically active environments, at the shallow structural levels, the occurrence of poorly consolidated sediments favors gravitational deformation. At deeper structural levels, the deformation related to tectonic forces becomes gradually more significant with depth. Sedimentary (and diapiric) mélanges and broken formations represent the products of punctuated stratal disruption mechanisms recording the instantaneous physical conditions in the geological environment at the time of their formation. The different kinematics, the composition and lithification degree of sediments, the geometry and morphology of the basins, and the mode of failure propagation control the transition between different types of mass-transported chaotic bodies, the style of stratal disruption, and the amount of rock mixing. Tectonically broken formations and mélanges record a continuum of deformation that occurs through time and different degrees of lithification during a progressive increase of the degree of consolidation and of the diagenetic and metamorphic mineral transformation. Systematic documentation of the mechanisms and processes of the formation of different broken formations and mélanges and their interplay in time and space are highly important to increase the understanding of the evolutionary history of accretionary wedges and orogenic belts.

Reactive infiltration instability of a granitization front during the generation and development of granite-gneiss domes

The origin of granite-gneiss domes is traditionally attributed to gravity tectonics, the ascent of granite-gneiss diapirs in a gravitational field owing to a relative decrease in the density of granitized rocks compared with their protolith. This is usually considered by the example of a two-layer medium with a lower layer of granitized rocks overlain by a denser protolith layer; the development of gravitational instability in the system results in the ascent of a granite-gneiss diapir. However, the diapiric process can be initiated only if Archimedes’ buoyancy forces at the roof of the granite-gneiss layer will overcome the resistance of the protolith rocks related to their long-term strength. Under the conditions of plastic deformations, this requires the existence of a large-scale irregularity in the relief of the layer boundary, namely, an antiform cusp in the roof of the granite-gneiss layer. The model is based on the assumption that such antiforms appear owing to the reactive infiltration instability of the morphology of the granitization front caused by an increase in the fluid permeability of granitized rocks compared with that of the protolith. The results of computer modeling support the geological feasibility of the reactive infiltration mechanism of the generation and development of the protodiapiric forms of the granitization front triggering the development of the diapiric process of the gravitational upwelling of granite-gneiss domes. The model of a protodiapir stage allows us to consider dome formation as a result of the development of two sequential instabilities: the reactive infiltration instability of the granitization front related to an increase in the permeability of the transformed rock followed by the gravitational instability related to a relative decrease in rock density.

Small-scale polygenetic mélanges in the Ligurian accretionary complex, Northern Apennines, Italy, and the role of shale diapirism in superposed mélange evolution in orogenic belts

The Argille varicolori (Varicolored scaly clays) of the External Ligurian Units of the Northern Apennines have been widely described as a typical unmetamorphosed broken formation (i.e., a chaotic unit without exotic blocks), produced by offscraping and tectonic imbrication during the evolution of the Ligurian accretionary wedge. Geological mapping and integrated structural and stratigraphic observations show that the Argille varicolori consist of diverse types of small-scale mélanges (non-mappable at a 1:25,000 scale) forming a composite chaotic unit, in which the superposition of tectonic, sedimentary and diapiric processes resulted in the occurrence of polygenetic chaotic bodies at different scales. These mélange units record the evolution of the Ligurian accretionary wedge from subduction to collision and intracontinental deformation. Tectonically Disrupted Body 1 (TDB1) comprises boudinage and pinch-and-swell structures formed by layer-parallel extension/contraction at the wedge front of the Ligurian accretionary complex during the late Cretaceous–middle Eocene. It is interleaved with non-mappable Gravity-driven Chaotic Bodies (GCB) developed during alternating episodes of accretion and removal of material at the wedge front. The late Oligocene–early Miocene out-of-sequence thrusting related to the collisional episodes in the Apennines overprinted the previously formed chaotic bodies and formed a polygenetic tectonic mélange (Tectonically Disrupted Body 2, TDB2). This unit is characterized by a structurally ordered block-in-matrix fabric and by the gradual decrease of stratal disruption away from the regional thrust. Overpressurized fluids concentrated along the shear surfaces, and the scaly cleavage planes facilitated the diapiric upward movement of unconsolidated sediments in the early Miocene. This process produced non-mappable shale dike injections (DDB1) and mappable Diapirically Disrupted Bodies (DDB2), which show an internal zonation of deformation. This deformation reworked the previously formed chaotic bodies. Although some of these polygenetic mélanges cannot be mapped at a 1:25,000 scale, their careful documentation provides a better understanding of time-progressive, scale-independent mélange-forming processes.

Geology and Environmental Impact Assessment and Benefit of Granitic Rocks of Minna Area, Northwestern Nigeria

Nigeria basement complex has shown that the older granites are high level intrusions emplaced by stoping and diapiric process and include spectrum of rocks varying in composition from tonalite through granodiorite to granite. The intense regional deformation which accompanied and preceded the emplacement of the older granite result in it pronounced and wide spread northeast trend. The granites termed older granites in Nigeria have been dated severally at 500-750 million years. Minna is situated in the central part of the Nigeria basement complex surrounded by rugged terrain of granitic rocks, this necessitates the geological and impact assessment of the granitic rock in Minna. Field study reveals eight granitic masses which occur as Paiko and Minna batholiths and as continuous ridge in north-south direction of about 18 kms and average height of 350 meters above sea level. In hand specimen, the granitic rocks vary from medium, porphyritic to coarse variety from light colored to medium dark colored.Key Words: Geology, Environmental impact, Assessment, Benefit and Granitic Rocks.