Diagnosis Of Specific Learning Disabilities Research Articles

Examination Family Physicians’ Knowledge and Awareness of Specific Learning Disorder

Specific learning disorder (SLD) is defined as the difficulty an individual has been experiencing for at least six months in using their learning and academic skills despite appropriate interventions being provided. Family physicians are doctors who comprehensively evaluate individuals under their responsibility for diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation, and counseling services. Therefore, it is important that family physicians notice the symptoms of SLD in children and direct them for diagnosis, evaluation, and intervention. The aim of this study was to examine the knowledge and awareness levels of family physicians about SLD. For the research, the Special Learning Disorder Knowledge and Awareness Level Questionnaire" was developed by the researchers and administered to family physicians serving in various cities in Turkey. The data were obtained with the voluntary participation of 125 family physicians in an electronic environment. Statistical analyses were conducted by calculating the frequency and percentage values of the responses given by the family physicians to the questionnaire items. According to the research findings, it was determined that family physicians have knowledge deficiencies regarding the definition, etiology, prevalence, diagnosis, evaluation, and intervention processes of SLD. Additionally, it was determined that the awareness of family physicians about SLD is low and they mostly acquire information through the internet and social media (such as Instagram/Twitter) and books/articles. It is vital to implement the necessary interventions along with the early diagnosis of SLD. Therefore, it is important to increase the knowledge and awareness of family physicians so that they can notice individuals with SLD in early childhood and direct them to the diagnosis-evaluation and intervention processes.

Strengths and Difficulties among Adolescent with and without Specific Learning Disorders (SLD).

Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) have become a major concern in modern societies. It is essential to detect their emotional, behavioral and social consequences as early as childhood. The aim of this study is to examine a set of strengths and difficulties and compare them between students with and without SLD. Participants in this study were adolescents aged 11-18 years from Budapest and villages of its Metropolitan area (Hungary) (N = 276, mean age = 13.6 years, SD = 1.8, 54.7% boys). Due to multistage sampling, a nearly equal number of students had SLD or not. In addition to sociodemographics, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), Satisfaction With Life Scale and the Proactive Coping Inventory were included in the survey, and t-test, correlation and logistic regression analysis were applied in statistical analyses. Our findings suggest that in early adolescence (ages 11-14 years), conduct and peer problems, in late adolescence (ages 15-18 years), emotional problems, highlighted SLD. In terms of strengths, prosocial behavior in children with SLD may compensate difficulties, especially at a younger age. Students from lower SES families and those having parents with a lower educational level are more likely to have a diagnosis of SLD. Teachers and special educators should take care of improving the adolescents' prosociality, social and coping skills and listening to emotional, conduct and peer problems in those with SLD.

Virtual reality rehabilitation program on executive functions of children with specific learning disorders: a pilot study.

The application of Virtual Reality (VR) in the field of rehabilitation has been widely studied, because it has already proven to be an effective intervention for a variety of physical and cognitive conditions. Nevertheless, its application in pediatric rehabilitation is more recent. This pilot study aims to examine whether a VR-rehabilitation program may have positive effects on the Executive Functions (EFs) of children with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD). Twenty-four children with diagnosis of SLD participated to the study (range 7-11 years) and performed the VR-training across 6 weeks in the CARE Lab, that was designed with appropriate structural measures and ad hoc fittings, to hide the sophisticated technology necessary to allow the child to experience a rehabilitative setting with recreational and semi-immersive features. Children were evaluated across three main time-points: T0, assessment of cognitive level and EFs immediately before the start of the intervention; T1, assessment of EFs immediately after the end of VR intervention; T2, follow-up of EFs after 6 months from the end of the VR intervention. The rehabilitation programs were customized according to clinical needs and/or single patient's characteristics, proposing different games with variable complexity levels. Results showed that scores for visual attention, inhibition, flexibility, and planning abilities were significantly higher than before the intervention, and the most part of these ameliorations were maintained after 6 months. These findings provide important inputs for the development of new innovative rehabilitation interventions for children with SLD that must be founded in ecological and evidence-based approaches.

Serum Zonulin and Claudin-5 but not Interferon-Gamma and Interleukin-17A Levels Increased in Children with Specific Learning Disorder: A Case-Control Study.

Gut-blood and blood-brain barrier permeabilty (gut-brain axis) has been attracting increased attention in the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. In this study, we aimed to investigate serum levels of zonulin (a biomarker of intestinal permeability), claudin-5 (a biomarker of blood-brain barrier permeability), and interferon-gamma and interleukin-17A in children with specific learning disorder. Forty-three children with DSM-5 diagnosis of specific learning disorder and 43 healthy children were included in this study. Serum levels of zonulin, claudin-5, interferon-gamma, and interleukin-17A were measured using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. Serum zonulin and claudin-5 levels of the study group were significantly higher than the control group according to the multivariate analysis of covariance test while controlling for age, gender, and body mass index. However, serum interferon-gamma and interleukin-17A levels were not significantly different between the two groups. There was no correlation either between zonulin and interferon-gamma and interleukin-17A or claudin-5 and interferon-gamma and interleukin-17A. Gut-blood and blood-brain barrier permeability may be disrupted in subjects with special learning disorder. Further research is needed to determine whether zonulin and claudin-5 may be biomarkers, and some dietary interventions or specific agents such as zonulin or claudin-5 inhibitors could be used in the management of neurodevelopmental disorders including special learning disorder.

Is Specific Learning Disorder Predicted by Developmental Language Disorder? Evidence from a Follow-Up Study on Italian Children.

Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) is a complex disorder with a strong genetic component, characterized by varying manifestations and considerable differences among children. Several studies have highlighted that difficulties in language acquisition and the presence of Developmental Language Disorders (DLDs) are frequently associated with SLD, suggesting a continuity between the two disorders. This study aimed to add evidence on the proximal and distal predictors of SLD, focusing on the eventual continuity for the presence of DLD at 4-5 years, on some linguistic and communicative abilities at 27-30 months, and on biological and environmental factors. Our sample consisted of 528 families, whose children (Italian monolingual) participated in a screening program at the age of 27-30 months. When children were on average 8.05 years old, parents were asked to answer an interview aimed at collecting information about the children's language and learning development. Results showed that the prevalence of children with an SLD (7.01%) was in line with those reported in other similar studies. The diagnosis of SLD was significantly predicted by the previous diagnosis of DLD, by male sex/gender, and by the familial risk of SLD. Children with these characteristics had a 54% probability of presenting an SLD.

Efficacy of a Task-Oriented Intervention for Children with a Dual Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Pilot Study.

Task-oriented approaches are recommended for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) to address deficits in motor performance and reduce activity limitations. Although this approach is used in several settings, the efficacy of these approaches in children with in dual-diagnosis of specific learning disabilities (SLD) and DCD is less widely known. This study aims to determine the effect of a group-based intervention based on neuromotor task training (NTT) principles on the motor performance of children aged 6-10 years with SLD/DCD. A pre-post-test controlled study design was conducted in children with a primary diagnosis of specific learning disabilities (SLD). DCD status was confirmed based on clinical assessment. Children scoring ≤16th percentile on the Motor Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2), who also presented with a functional motor problem, according to the MABC checklist were considered as having DCD. Children were allocated to the NTT intervention group based on teachers' perceived notion of need and received two 45-60 min training sessions per week for nine weeks. Children allocated to the usual care (UC) group, received their planned occupational therapy and physical education. The MABC-2 was used to assess changes in motor performance. Our numbers confirm that it is crucial to identify the presence of motor coordination difficulties in children who have been diagnosed with SLD. A task-oriented training program based on NTT principles, presented in small groups, has a positive effect on the motor performance in learners with neurodevelopmental disorders and this effect was larger than in the usual care group. Although using a small group format in children with multiple neurodevelopmental disorders may be challenging for the therapists, it may be a way of delivering services to children in schools for special education. Children with DCD plus LSD show improvement in their motor skills by performing group-based NTT in the school environment. Group-based NTT shows a significant improvement in the TSS score of the MABC-2 compared to usual care. Children with DCD plus SLD show equal effect sizes after NTT intervention as DCD without SLD.

Early Intervention and Early Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disabilities: Response to Intervention

Özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilerin okuma, yazma ve matematik alanlarında güçlükler yaşadığı bilinmektedir. Bu güçlükleri sergileme riski olan öğrencilere erken müdahalenin sağlanması ileri dönemdeki okul performansları açısından kritik rol oynamaktadır. Özel öğrenme güçlüğünün değerlendirilmesi ve tanılanmasının Türkiye’deki durumu incelendiğinde özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilerin tanılanmasında zekâ testlerinin etkin olarak kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Fakat özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilerin tanılama öncesindeki eğitsel gereksinimlerine yönelik bilimsel dayanaklı ve sistematik uygulamaların yetersiz olduğu görülmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı bilimsel dayanaklı ve sistematik bir uygulama olan ve özel öğrenme güçlüğü riski olan öğrencilere yönelik erken müdahale ve erken tanı amaçlı kullanılan Müdahaleye Tepki Modeli (MTM)’nin açıklanarak ulusal alan yazına kazandırılmasıdır. MTM, öğrenme problemleri yaşayan öğrencileri belirleyen ve bu öğrenciler akranlarından geride kalmadan öğrencilere eğitsel destek sağlayan çok aşamalı bir erken tanı, müdahale ve destek sistemidir. MTM’nin amacı, yalnızca özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilere değil tanılanmamış ve/veya özel öğrenme güçlüğü olma riski olan öğrencilere de erken müdahale sağlamaktır. MTM çok aşamalı bir model olsa da yaygın olarak üç aşamalı olarak uygulanan bir modeldir. Her bir aşamada müdahalenin niteliği değişmekte ve müdahale daha da yoğunlaşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada MTM’ye yönelik bilgiler sunularak geçmişten günümüze değin özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan bireylerin tanılanma ve erken müdahale süreçlerindeki değişim ele alınmaktadır. Ayrıca Türkiye’de MTM’ye ilişkin durum açıklanarak öneriler sunulmaktadır.

The structure, profile, and diagnostic significance of intelligence in children with ADHD are impressively similar to those of children with a specific learning disorder

This study examines the structure, profile, and diagnostic significance of intelligence in a group of 948 children diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) assessed with the WISC-IV and compared with children with specific learning disorders (SLDs) and with typically developing children. Based on four indexes, the WISC-IV configuration found in TD resulted applicable to ADHD, but with generally lower loadings on g. The Perceptual Reasoning and Verbal Comprehension indexes not only had higher loadings compared to the other two indexes but also represented the relative strengths of children with ADHD, as previously observed for children with SLD. In fact, the WISC pattern could be successfully used for discriminating between ADHD and TD, but not between ADHD and SLD. The latter result was not due to a co-occurrence of a learning disorder because the presence or absence of an associated diagnosis of SLD negligibly affected the pattern observed in ADHD. We concluded that the characteristics of intelligence in children with ADHD can be relevant for assessing this disorder, and that ADHD and SLDs share largely similar underlying cognitive features.

Specific Learning Disorders and Eating Disorders: an Italian retrospective study

BackgroundAlthough Anorexia Nervosa (AN) patients show dysfunctional behaviour in information processing, visual and verbal memory performance, and different cognitive fields, regardless of their BMI, the literature on the correlations between Eating Disorders (ED) and Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDD) does not provide conclusive data. Rather than a consequence of the mental disorder, cognitive dysfunctions may be a risk factor for AN.MethodsOur retrospective study investigates the prevalence of Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) among patients with ED. We considered 262 patients being treated at the Emilia Romagna Feeding and Eating Disorders Outpatient Service in Bologna, Italy. We compared the results with the Italian reference values, according to the most recent data provided by the Italian Ministry of Education.ResultsWe found that 25 patients out of 262 (9.54%) presented a comorbid diagnosis of SLD. This SLD prevalence is higher than the Italian reference values (4.9% in the school year 2018/19, p < 0.001). Comorbidity with SLD was significantly more frequent in males. A diagnosis of SLD was not associated with a higher frequency of any specific ED diagnosis or with psychiatric comorbidity in general. Positive family history for SLD was not significantly associated with either a positive family history for ED or a diagnosis of SLD.ConclusionsThis is the first Italian study to investigate the prevalence of SLD in ED patients during childhood and adolescence. Our data support previous research documenting that neuropsychological deficit could lead to the development of ED.

Özgül öğrenme güçlüğü olan çocuk ve ergenlerin intihar olasılığı ve kişilik özellikleri

Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the personality traits and suicide probability of children and adolescents with a diagnosis of specific learning disorder (SLD). &#x0D; Materials and Methods: Sixty children with SLD diagnosis and 60 children without SLD diagnosis were included in the study. K-SADS-PL (Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime version), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised Short Form (WISC-R), Children Depression Inventory (CDI), Suicide Probability Scale (SPS) Personality Inventory for DSM‑5‑Brief Form‑Children (PID-5-BF) scales were used in this study. &#x0D; Results: Factors such as low birth weight, SPS total score and hopelessness subscale, PID-5-BF total score and other subscale scores (excluding antagonism) were higher in the SLD group compared to the control group. There was no significant difference between the groups in terms of CDI score. Children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy had higher frequency of suicidal thoughts and PID-5-BF total scores.&#x0D; Conclusion: Suicide probability and personality pathologies of children with SLD were found to be higher, regardless of the level of depression. While the low birth weight was important in the etiology of SLD, exposure to smoking during pregnancy was found to be a risk factor for child’s suicidal ideation and personality pathologies.

Strengths and difficulties in children with specific learning disabilities.

The study aims to investigate the social, emotional, and behavioral challenges in children with a specific learning disability (SLD) and to identify the factors that accompany these problems by screening with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The descriptive study was conducted on 278 children with SLD. Strengths and difficulties in children were evaluated by the SDQ applied to their mothers. The percentage of cases above the cut-off limits of the SDQ was calculated. Chi-square test and multiple logistic regression analysis were used for analysis. The mean (SD) total SDQ score was 15.8 (6.5). The percentage of scores of abnormal total difficulties in SLD was 47.8%. Multivariate analysis revealed that cases exposed to antenatal smoking had higher odds ratio of abnormal emotional symptoms and abnormal total difficulties; cases with poor familial income and the presence of a history of antenatal smoking exposure showed considerably higher odds ratio of conduct problems; cases with younger age at the diagnosis of SLD, dyscalculia, extreme duration of preschool screen time (≥4h), and history of hospitalization had significantly higher odds ratio for hyperactivity-inattention problems; and cases having shorter breastfeeding duration had higher odds ratio of peer problems compared to counterparts. Children with SLD have a high score on the SDQ. Practitioners could especially give guidance and support to families with financial problems and those having a child with an early age at diagnosis, exposure to antenatal smoking, short breastfeeding period, early age of the first screen use, and long screen exposure duration during the preschool period.

Comparison on Well-Being, Engagement and Perceived School Climate in Secondary School Students with Learning Difficulties and Specific Learning Disorders: An Exploratory Study.

Reading and writing skills influence the social status of students, exerting effects not only on learning, but also on wellbeing. This study aimed to assess the impact of diagnosis of specific learning disorder on well-being in secondary-school students, comparing students with a diagnosis of specific learning disorder (SLD-group), students showing learning difficulties without diagnosis (LD-group) and students without learning difficulties (control-group). Students were tested with neuropsychological screening tests in order to identify learning difficulties and were further assessed by means of psychological and school well-being questionnaires. The results show that LD group perceive themselves as having a low sense of mastery and autonomy, less interest and engagement in daily activities and low peer social support than their schoolmates. This result highlights, for the LD group, a low well-being experience, which is not observed in the SLD and control groups. On the contrary, SLD group students do not differ from control group students in any dimensions except for the perceived parents’ support and involvement in school life, in which the SLD group show the highest scores. This work underlines the importance of having a diagnosis as it seems to work as a protective factor for both the psychological and school well-being of the student.

Towards Correct and Safe Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder in Preschool Age. The perspective of Early Multi-collector Diagnostic Approaches. A Pilot Study

Towards Correct and Safe Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder in Preschool Age. The perspective of Early Multi-collector Diagnostic Approaches. A Pilot Study

Psychoeducation for Parents of Children with Learning Disorders: A Satisfaction Study

Psychoeducation for Parents of Children with Learning Disorders: A Satisfaction Study The present study investigates the implementation of psychoeducation for conveying a diagnosis of specific learning disorders to the parents of affected children. It addresses the question of how such consultations are structured and which factors predict how satisfied parents are with the psychoeducation they receive. 167 parents of children with specific learning disorders from Germany were surveyed via an online questionnaire and asked about their experiences and satisfaction with the psychoeducational aspects of their individual consultation. The results show that the implementation of psychoeducation was strongly heterogeneous. For example, the duration of the consultation varied from 4 to 120 minutes and the child in question was only present in around half of the cases. The methodical diversity was rather limited and the causes of learning disorders were rarely discussed with the parents. 54 % of the parents were satisfied or very satisfied with the psychoeducation. The findings of a regression analysis show that the consultant's professional and emotional competence as well as the practical value significantly predicted the parents' satisfaction. Overall, this regression model is able to explain 81.8 % variance in parents' satisfaction. An open and empathetic atmosphere during the consultation as well as specific and practical tips on how to support their child are particularly important.

Clinical Profiles and Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Adults with Specific Learning Disorder in Northern Greece.

The manifestation of Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) during adulthood is one of the least examined research areas among the relevant literature. Therefore, the adult population with SLD is considered a “rare” and “unique” population of major scientific interest. The aim of the current study was to investigate, describe, and analyze the clinical, academic, and socio-demographic characteristics, and other everyday functioning life-skills of adults with SLD, in an attempt to shed more light on this limited field of research. The overall sample consisted of 318 adults, who were assessed for possible SLD. The diagnostic procedure included self-report records (clinical interview), psychometric/cognitive, and learning assessments. The main finding of the study was that SLD, even during adulthood, continues to affect the individuals’ well-being and functionality in all of their life domains. There is an ongoing struggle of this population to obtain academic qualifications in order to gain vocational rehabilitation, as well as a difficulty to create a family, possibly resulting from their unstable occupational status, their financial insecurity, and the emotional/self-esteem issues they usually encounter, due to their ongoing learning problems. Moreover, the various interpersonal characteristics, the comorbidity issues, and the different developmental backgrounds observed in the clinical, academic, personal, social, and occupational profiles of the participants, highlight the enormous heterogeneity and the continuum that characterizes SLD during adulthood. We conclude that there is an imperative need for further research and the construction of more sufficient tools for the assessment and diagnosis of SLD during adulthood, which will take into account the developmental challenges and milestones in a series of domains, in order to assist this “vulnerable” population with their life struggles.

Inter-Correlations Between Tests Of Intelligence In Students With Learning Disabilities

Background: Tests of intelligence are a prelude to the diagnosis of specific learning disabilities. This study selected three commonly preferred performance measures, such as the Porteus Maze Test (PMT), Seguin Form Board (SFB), and Gesell Drawing Test (GDT), to examine their inter-correlations. A single-shot correlation survey design was combined with convenience sampling to determine the nature, direction, degree, and extent of co-variance of test scores between the chosen tests for an overall sample of 161 students with specific learning disabilities. The overall trends and concerning personal-demographic variables like age, gender, level of schooling, and type of curriculum, were investigated. For the overall sample (N: 161), the obtained mean SFB mental age of 109.79 (SD: 20.38), GDT mental age of 98.80 (SD: 20.07), and PMT mental age of 103.75 (SD: 29.07) months. The GDT appears to be estimating mental ages less by five points against the PMT, and by twelve points against the SFB in the targeted children. Analysis of inter-correlations between the test scores on pairs for the three tests of intelligence shows moderate to highly significant correlation (p: 0.05) ranging from 0.48 and 0.53, irrespective of which among them is used as anchor test. This means that they all possess good convergent validity for their regular use during clinical practice in the diagnosis of children with learning disabilities.

Tell Me a Story: Socio-Emotional Functioning, Well-Being and Problematic Smartphone Use in Adolescents With Specific Learning Disabilities.

Although Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) are described as specific difficulties in one or more academic areas, often socio-emotional problems are also reported to be related to well-being and school engagement. Moreover, recent evidence shows that emotional problems and reduced social support predict problematic use of new technologies, such as a smartphone, that can, in turn, increase these problems. In this study, we aimed to investigate socio-emotional functioning and its relation to well-being, school engagement, and problematic smartphone use. Social and emotional skills of 19 adolescents with a diagnosis of SLD and 19 control adolescents were assessed through a narrative test; adolescents were requested to narrate complete stories elicited by pictures representing social situations. Information on well-being and problematic smartphone use were collected through questionnaires. The comparison between groups showed differences in cognitive-social skills, although no significant differences in emotional functioning were found. Additionally, the perception of the social environment as supportive and trustworthy was related to general well-being for both groups, whereas the perception of limits and rules set by the adult world appeared to be related to a decreased investment in learning processes only for the SLD students. Finally, correlation analysis showed that smartphone use was associated with reduced perception of social support and to a decreased ability to understand and solve social situations. These results assert the critical role played by social information processing and social support in terms of well-being in adolescence, and contribute to enhancing knowledge of the mechanisms underlying problematic smartphone use in a clinical sample.

Development and Preliminary validation of a screening tool for Specific learning disorder in children

Background: Delay in early diagnosis of Specific learning disorder (SLD) is influenced by various factors, including the lack of simple yet validated tools for assessment. Objective: We aimed to develop and validate a screening questionnaire in English and Malayalam for SLD in children aged 7-11 years, which can be used easily. This paper deals with the initial development and preliminary validation of the tool, which was subsequently validated in a larger sample and had already been published. Materials and methods: The tool was validated using a case-control methodology. It was developed after ensuring face and content validity, and suitable modifications were done based on the internal consistency measure and factor analysis results. The tool was applied in children with SLD and two groups of controls. ROC curve analysis was done to find the optimum cut-off, and validity parameters were estimated. Results: A total of 21 SLD, 42 normal and 37 borderline intelligence children, were studied. The final tool with 26 items had good Cronbach’s alpha (0.95) and area under the curve values (0.96). The tool had good sensitivity (100 %) and specificity (77.2%), i.e., if the score is <10, we can rule out SLD. Conclusions: We propose a new screening tool for SLD with promising reliability and validity characteristics that need to be evaluated further.

Intellectual functioning and executive functions in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and specific learning disorder (SLD)

Several studies have shown neuropsychological deficits across multiple domains in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and specific learning disorder (SLD), but differences and similarities between these disorders have been little considered. We were interested in analyzing the intellectual and executive profiles in a sample of children and adolescents, divided according to the diagnosis into the ADHD group and the SLD group, and in identifying the differences and similarities between these disorders. The sample included two clinical groups: the first included 36 children and adolescents with a diagnosis of ADHD (5-15years; mean=9.42; SD=2.22) while the second included 36 children and adolescents with a diagnosis of SLD (7-15years; mean=9.43; SD=2.25). The WISC-IV was used to measure intellectual ability and the NEPSY-II was employed to measure executive functions. The results showed that the SLD group had significantly higher scores than the ADHD group on the NEPSY-II in the inhibition, cognitive flexibility, short-term verbal memory and verbal working memory domains. The ANCOVA showed differences regarding the FSIQ of WISC-IV, in that the SLD group obtaining higher scores than ADHD group. Findings showed that ADHD children are more impaired than SLD children, in particular in cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, verbal memory, working memory and intellectual functioning. The recognition of the strengths and weaknesses of children and adolescents with ADHD and SLD allows to outline an educational and clinical intervention focused on their specific executive and intellectual functioning.

The discrepancy between verbal and visuoperceptual IQ in children with a specific learning disorder: An analysis of 1624 cases

Children with a specific learning disorder (SLD) are often characterized by marked intellectual strengths and weaknesses. In the last few years, research has focused on a common discrepancy between low working memory and processing speed on the one hand, and high verbal and visuoperceptual intelligence on the other. SLD profiles featuring a specific discrepancy between verbal and visuoperceptual abilities have been only marginally considered, however, and their systematic comparison vis-à-vis typically-developing (TD) populations has yet to be conducted. The present study examined a dataset of 1624 WISC-IV profiles of children with a diagnosis of SLD. It emerged that the proportion of children with a Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) at least 1.5 SD (22 standardized points) lower than their scores on the Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) was larger than the proportion of SLD children with the opposite discrepant profile; it was also larger than the same proportion found among TD children. Comparing the two discrepant profiles revealed that the children also differed by type of learning difficulty, gender, and performance in the WISC-IV Symbol search task. Further examination suggested that children who were discrepant and also distinctly poor in visuoperceptual intelligence were particularly slow in general processing.