Maturation Development Research Articles

Viability of Extremely Premature neonates: clinical approaches and outcomes.

Viability refers to an infant's ability to survive outside the womb, which is influenced by both developmental maturity and the quality of medical care received. The concept of periviability, which has evolved alongside medical advancements, describes the stage between viability and nonviability, typically spanning from 200/7 to 25 6/7 weeks of gestation. While the chances of survival are extremely low at the earlier end of this range, the possibility of surviving without significant long-term complications improves towards the later end. The effectiveness of various antenatal and postnatal care practices, particularly those considered to be part of an active approach, plays a crucial role in influencing survival rates and mitigating morbidities. However, the decision to provide such active care is heavily influenced by national guidelines as well as international standards. The variability in guideline recommendations from one country to another, coupled with differences based on gestational age or accompanying risk factors, prevents the establishment of a standardized global approach. This variability results in differing practices depending on the country or institution where the birth occurs. Consequently, healthcare providers must navigate these discrepancies, which often leads to complex ethical dilemmas regarding the balance between potential survival and the associated risks. This review article explores the evolution of the definition of viability, the vulnerabilities faced by periviable infants, and the advancements in medical care that have improved survival rates. Additionally, it examines the viability and periviability definitions, the care and outcomes of periviable infants and recommendations in guidelines.

Correlation between Blood Pressure and Left Ventricular Function in Neonates: A Retrospective Observational Study

Purpose: Ejection fraction, measured as the fraction of blood ejected from the ventricle in each heartbeat using M-mode echocardiography, serves as a primary indicator of left ventricular systolic function. This study explores the correlation between blood pressure and left ventricular systolic function in neonates using M-mode echocardiography.Methods: Neonates who underwent echocardiography in the neonatal intensive care unit between January 2011 and December 2020 were retrospectively studied.Results: Our analyses showed a significant association between ejection fraction and systolic blood pressure, but not with diastolic or mean blood pressure—both of which are more sensitive to hypotension. Ejection fraction was also not significantly associated with heart rate, urine output, or inotropic support in this study, suggesting that factors influencing urine output may not directly relate to ejection fraction. Additionally, we found that higher systolic blood pressure was correlated with advanced gestational age, the absence of patent ductus arteriosus, and no need for fentanyl administration. Notably, lower gestational age and lack of mechanical ventilation were both associated with increased hourly urine output, suggesting that developmental maturity and respiratory stability may influence renal function.Conclusion: Neonatal hypotension occurred secondary to decreased systolic cardiac function and peripheral vascular resistance. Neonatologists should carefully monitor the individual components of blood pressure and prescribe medications accordingly, considering that systolic blood pressure is correlated with ejection function.

The Homeobox Transcription Factor Cux1 Coordinates Postnatal Epithelial Developmental Timing but Is Dispensable for Lung Organogenesis and Regeneration.

Lung epithelial progenitors use a complex network of known and predicted transcriptional regulators to influence early lung development. Here, we evaluate the function of one predicted regulator, Cux1, that we identified from transcriptional regulatory analysis of the SOX9+ distal lung progenitor network. We generated a new Cux1-floxed mouse model and created an epithelial-specific knockout of Cux1 using Shh-Cre (Cux1ShhCre-LOF). Postnatal Cux1ShhCre-LOF animals recapitulated key skin phenotypic features found in prior constitutive Cux1 knockout animals, confirming functionality of our new floxed model. Postnatal Cux1ShhCre-LOF mice displayed subtle alveolar simplification and a transient delay in alveologenesis and alveolar type 1 cell development without persistent lung phenotypes. Cux1ShhCre-LOF mice developed failure to thrive in their second and third weeks of life due to delayed ileal maturation, which similarly resolves by postnatal day 35. Finally, we challenged Cux1ShhCre-LOF with influenza-mediated lung injury to demonstrate that Cux1ShhCre-LOF mice undergo productive alveolar regeneration that is indistinguishable from WT animals. Together, these findings indicate that epithelial-specific loss of Cux1 leads to transient developmental delays in the skin, lung, and intestine without defects in definitive organogenesis. We conclude that Cux1 function is required for temporal optimization of developmental maturation in multiple organs with implications for susceptibility windows in developmental disease pathogenesis.

Neural crest precursors from the skin are the primary source of directly reprogrammed neurons

Direct reprogramming involves the conversion of differentiated cell types without returning to an earlier developmental state. Here, we explore how heterogeneity in developmental lineage and maturity of the starting cell population contributes to direct reprogramming using the conversion of murine fibroblasts into neurons. Our hypothesis is that a single lineage of cells contributes to most reprogramming and that a rare elite precursor with intrinsic bias is the source of reprogrammed neurons. We find that nearly all reprogrammed neurons are derived from the neural crest (NC) lineage. Moreover, when rare proliferating NC precursors are selectively ablated, there is a large reduction in the number of reprogrammed neurons. Previous interpretations of this paradigm are that it demonstrates a cell fate conversion across embryonic germ layers (mesoderm to ectoderm). Our interpretation is that this is actually directed differentiation of a neural lineage stem cell in the skin that has intrinsic bias to produce neuronal progeny.

From ‘raise the age’ to ‘raise the awareness’: how knowledge affects public opinion of the minimum age of criminal responsibility in Western Australia

ABSTRACT The minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR) in Western Australia is 10 years old. While the negative impacts of early contact with justice systems have been well-documented and have resulted in calls to raise the age, research had not examined the public views of MACR in Western Australia. This article presents a novel examination of the knowledge and perceptions of the MACR with a sample of the West Australian public (n = 69). Findings from the semi-structured interviews revealed low levels of knowledge about the MACR, some reacted with surprise when provided with the information. Participants’ views shifted in that they expected children knew ‘right from wrong’, however, they acknowledged discrepancies with other age-dependent social milestones and that the MACR was inconsistent with developmental maturity levels. They supported rehabilitative options unless the crime was serious and concluded the MACR needed to be assessed and applied proportionally on a case-by-case basis so that children who had offended could be held accountable. Finally, most participants supported raising the age from 10 to between 12 and 18. The study thus reaffirms the importance of increasing public awareness of the issue for the success of the ‘raise the age’ campaign in Western Australia.

Sustainable Valorization of CO2 through Nuclear Power-to-X Pathways

Some of the issues concerning energy security and climate change can be addressed by employing nuclear power (NP) to supply the energy required for the conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) into chemicals, products, and materials. Nuclear energy represents a neutral carbon source that can be generated sustainably, reliably, and consistently. Nuclear power plants (NPPs) could supply energy in the form of heat, electricity, and ionizing radiation to drive CO2 chemical reactions underpinning NP-to-X type of pathways. CO2 conversion processes are either commercially available or emerging technologies at different developmental maturity stages. This work reviews the published literature (articles and patents) that reports R&D results and the understanding and development of chemical reactions and processes, as well as the efforts in integrating NPPs and chemical processes (CPs). As will be made evident, a new industrial era for the manufacturing of decarbonized chemicals, products, and materials will be possible by developing and implementing new (more energy- and carbon-efficient) processes responding to the NP-to-X pathways. This new decarbonizing platform not only contributes to achieving net zero goals but also broadens the NPP product beyond electricity.

Developmental maturation and regional heterogeneity but no sexual dimorphism of the murine CNS myelin proteome.

The molecules that constitute myelin are critical for the integrity of axon/myelin-units and thus speed and precision of impulse propagation. In the CNS, the protein composition of oligodendrocyte-derived myelin has evolutionarily diverged and differs from that in the PNS. Here, we hypothesized that the CNS myelin proteome also displays variations within the same species. We thus used quantitative mass spectrometry to compare myelin purified from mouse brains at three developmental timepoints, from brains of male and female mice, and from four CNS regions. We find that most structural myelin proteins are of approximately similar abundance across all tested conditions. However, the abundance of multiple other proteins differs markedly over time, implying that the myelin proteome matures between P18 and P75 and then remains relatively constant until at least 6 months of age. Myelin maturation involves a decrease of cytoskeleton-associated proteins involved in sheath growth and wrapping, along with an increase of all subunits of the septin filament that stabilizes mature myelin, and of multiple other proteins which potentially exert protective functions. Among the latter, quinoid dihydropteridine reductase (QDPR) emerges as a highly specific marker for mature oligodendrocytes and myelin. Conversely, female and male mice display essentially similar myelin proteomes. Across the four CNS regions analyzed, we note that spinal cord myelin exhibits a comparatively high abundance of HCN2-channels, required for particularly long sheaths. These findings show that CNS myelination involves developmental maturation of myelin protein composition, and regional differences, but absence of evidence for sexual dimorphism.

Defining Success in the Delivery of Fertility-Related Care for Patients with Differences of Sex Development

Introduction: Individuals with differences of sex development (DSD) experience complex, often competing, medical and psychosocial challenges surrounding fertility. The study aimed to characterize how “success” in fertility-related care is conceptualized and attained among individuals with a DSD, their parents or caregivers, healthcare providers, and other stakeholders. Methods: As part of a larger study, DSD stakeholders (n = 110) participated in semi-structured interviews covering the clinical care of patients with DSD. Primary questions included “What is a successful outcome in DSD care?” and “How do you achieve it?” with fertility as either a spontaneous or suggested topic of discussion. Transcripts were analyzed utilizing a phenomenological approach. This analysis focuses on the extracted themes related to fertility. Results: Fertility was discussed by 19/24 individuals with DSD, 12/19 parents or caregivers, 35/37 healthcare providers, and 19/30 other stakeholders. Components of successful fertility-related care included (1) specific discussions surrounding the relationship between DSD and fertility potential, options for fertility preservation, and options for non-biologic parenthood; (2) early and repeated introduction of these topics; and (3) consideration of age, developmental maturity, and cultural context on decisions around fertility. Challenges included the lack of fertility outcome data in this population and the irreversibility of gonadectomy. Trade-offs identified included anatomic typicality versus function, fertility preservation versus cancer risk reduction, and balancing the different priorities of stakeholders. Discussion/Conclusions: A wide range of DSD stakeholders highlighted the importance of addressing fertility concerns in achieving favorable outcomes for individuals with DSD. These stakeholder perspectives should inform fertility-related education, shared decision-making processes, and clinical care.

Pediatric Assent in Clinical Practice: A Critical Scoping Review

Background This study assesses how pediatric assent is conceptualized and justified within the therapeutic context. Pediatric ethicists generally agree that children should participate in medical care decisions in developmentally appropriate ways. Much attention has been paid to pediatric assent for research participation, but ambiguities persist in how assent is conceptualized and operationalized in the therapeutic context where countervailing considerations such as the child’s best interest and parental permission must also be weighed. Methods Searches were conducted in 11 databases including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science. Articles published between 2010 and 2020 were screened in COVIDENCE for meeting each of four criteria: (1) focusing on pediatric assent, (2) focusing on clinical care, (3) including normative claims, and (4) containing substantive statements about the meaning of pediatric assent. Full texts were abstracted for (1) operational definitions of assent, (2) discussion of the temporal nature of assent, (3) description of the concept of “understanding,” and (4) ethical justifications for soliciting assent. These excerpts were coded and code patterns formed themes presented in the results. Results The final analytic data set contained 29 articles. Analysis yielded three key themes. First, valid assent varies by treatment, population (e.g., younger versus older), and geographic/cultural context. Second, assent represents two distinct longitudinal processes: One involves eliciting preferences over a disease course or care episode; the other focuses on children’s developmental maturation. Third, ethical justifications for assent draw variously on instrumental and intrinsic reasons, but often remain ambiguous. Conclusions There is widespread agreement that assent is morally valuable, but there remain substantial ambiguities or disagreements about its meaning, process, and ethical justification.

Simulation-based inference of developmental EEG maturation with the spectral graph model

The spectral content of macroscopic neural activity evolves throughout development, yet how this maturation relates to underlying brain network formation and dynamics remains unknown. Here, we assess the developmental maturation of electroencephalogram spectra via Bayesian model inversion of the spectral graph model, a parsimonious whole-brain model of spatiospectral neural activity derived from linearized neural field models coupled by the structural connectome. Simulation-based inference was used to estimate age-varying spectral graph model parameter posterior distributions from electroencephalogram spectra spanning the developmental period. This model-fitting approach accurately captures observed developmental electroencephalogram spectral maturation via a neurobiologically consistent progression of key neural parameters: long-range coupling, axonal conduction speed, and excitatory:inhibitory balance. These results suggest that the spectral maturation of macroscopic neural activity observed during typical development is supported by age-dependent functional adaptations in localized neural dynamics and their long-range coupling across the macroscopic structural network.

Early Interventions on Children with ASD: A Comprehensive Review

This study delves into the developmental outcomes and quality of life perspective in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) following early therapies. The study aims to unveil the efficacy of early interventions that target the myriad issues composing ASD through an exhaustive review of literature coupled with data analysis. It is identified that interventions have the capacity to mitigate basic impairments and nurture adaptive behavior: thus, fostering social interaction and communication, which are critical skills. In this study, the researcher establishes a framework for exploration based on various ethical considerations surrounding the issue and factors like technology and treatment methods that can enhance intervention effectiveness. They play a role not only in helping ASD children but also in their families, contributing towards positive outcomes for all involved parties. Interestingly enough, age along with hours spent studying show a significant correlation with test results underlining the importance of academic engagement alongside developmental maturity indicated by these variables. In a related regression analysis: age and hours studied demonstrate positive relationships with test scores which in turn suggests that early interventions might lead to improvements in academic performance; an aspect worth consideration when devising intervention programs further down the line.

Dental Age Assessment Based on Developmental Stages and Maturity Index of Third Molars for Medico-Legal Purposes.

As results may vary depending on the method of examination, this paper analyzes methods of age estimation based on the maturation index of third molars (I3M) and Kohler's developmental stages in living individuals. A total of 1475 orthopantomograms were analyzed. The results showed that the development of third molars tended to be more advanced in males than in females. Regression equations that included the value of the developmental stage of the left third molar most accurately predicted chronologic age in males and females. Using the I3M method, there were no statistically significant bilateral differences between the mandibular right and left third molars. Overall, 82.92% of males and only 72.82% of females were correctly classified with the cut-off value (0.08) for the left mandibular third molar index. In addition, 81.97% of individuals were correctly classified as minors and adults using the Kohler method, while only 78.62% of individuals were correctly classified as minors and adults using the I3M method. Based on the misclassification of minors as adults, both methods should be used with caution and overestimation of age should be considered, especially for those close to 18 years of age.

Analysis and comparison of the orbit determination accuracy of TianQin based on multiple ground-based measurements

TianQin project, a Chinese initiative in space gravitational wave detection, demands high precision in satellite orbit during both entry and scientific operations. As means of developmental maturation, ground-based measurements play a vital role in ensuring the smooth execution of TianQin satellite’s detection mission. This paper conducts a simulation analysis by utilizing various ground-based measurement data, including the China Deep Space Network (CDSN), S/Ka-band ranging system, and Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR). The main focus is to explore the distinctions in Precise Orbit Determination (POD) capabilities among different methods and to enhance POD accuracy through the integration of multiple techniques for TianQin satellites. The results indicate: (1) Leveraging a strategically positioned station distribution, CDSN stations offer extended observation time, averaging 17.3 h per satellite daily, compared to S/Ka’s 10.5 h. (2) In single-measurement POD scenarios, S/Ka proves superior, achieving accuracy better than 10 m and 0.4 mm s−1 for TianQin satellites with a 7-day orbit arc length. This superiority is attributed to its exceptional observational accuracy, outperforming CDSN’s 40 m and 2.2 mm s−1 for POD accuracy. (3) By integrating high-precision SLR data on the foundation of CDSN or S/Ka observations, the POD accuracy of TianQin satellites is further enhanced, despite the limited SLR data quantity.

Streamlined spatial and environmental expression signatures characterize the minimalist duckweed Wolffia australiana.

Single-cell genomics permits a new resolution in the examination of molecular and cellular dynamics, allowing global, parallel assessments of cell types and cellular behaviors through development and in response to environmental circumstances, such as interaction with water and the light-dark cycle of the Earth. Here, we leverage the smallest, and possibly most structurally reduced, plant, the semiaquatic Wolffia australiana, to understand dynamics of cell expression in these contexts at the whole-plant level. We examined single-cell-resolution RNA-sequencing data and found Wolffia cells divide into four principal clusters representing the above- and below-water-situated parenchyma and epidermis. Although these tissues share transcriptomic similarity with model plants, they display distinct adaptations that Wolffia has made for the aquatic environment. Within this broad classification, discrete subspecializations are evident, with select cells showing unique transcriptomic signatures associated with developmental maturation and specialized physiologies. Assessing this simplified biological system temporally at two key time-of-day (TOD) transitions, we identify additional TOD-responsive genes previously overlooked in whole-plant transcriptomic approaches and demonstrate that the core circadian clock machinery and its downstream responses can vary in cell-specific manners, even in this simplified system. Distinctions between cell types and their responses to submergence and/or TOD are driven by expression changes of unexpectedly few genes, characterizing Wolffia as a highly streamlined organism with the majority of genes dedicated to fundamental cellular processes. Wolffia provides a unique opportunity to apply reductionist biology to elucidate signaling functions at the organismal level, for which this work provides a powerful resource.

Ataxia Telangiectasia patient-derived neuronal and brain organoid models reveal mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress

Ataxia Telangiectasia (AT) is a rare disorder caused by mutations in the ATM gene and results in progressive neurodegeneration for reasons that remain poorly understood. In addition to its central role in nuclear DNA repair, ATM operates outside the nucleus to regulate metabolism, redox homeostasis and mitochondrial function. However, a systematic investigation into how and when loss of ATM affects these parameters in relevant human neuronal models of AT was lacking. We therefore used cortical neurons and brain organoids from AT-patient iPSC and gene corrected isogenic controls to reveal levels of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and senescence that vary with developmental maturity. Transcriptome analyses identified disruptions in regulatory networks related to mitochondrial function and maintenance, including alterations in the PARP/SIRT signalling axis and dysregulation of key mitophagy and mitochondrial fission-fusion processes. We further show that antioxidants reduce ROS and restore neurite branching in AT neuronal cultures, and ameliorate impaired neuronal activity in AT brain organoids. We conclude that progressive mitochondrial dysfunction and aberrant ROS production are important contributors to neurodegeneration in AT and are strongly linked to ATM's role in mitochondrial homeostasis regulation.

Developmental maturation of millimeter-scale functional networks across brain areas.

Interacting with the environment to process sensory information, generate perceptions, and shape behavior engages neural networks in brain areas with highly varied representations, ranging from unimodal sensory cortices to higher-order association areas. Recent work suggests a much greater degree of commonality across areas, with distributed and modular networks present in both sensory and non-sensory areas during early development. However, it is currently unknown whether this initially common modular structure undergoes an equally common developmental trajectory, or whether such a modular functional organization persists in some areas-such as primary visual cortex-but not others. Here we examine the development of network organization across diverse cortical regions in ferrets of both sexes using in vivo widefield calcium imaging of spontaneous activity. We find that all regions examined, including both primary sensory cortices (visual, auditory, and somatosensory-V1, A1, and S1, respectively) and higher order association areas (prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices) exhibit a largely similar pattern of changes over an approximately 3 week developmental period spanning eye opening and the transition to predominantly externally-driven sensory activity. We find that both a modular functional organization and millimeter-scale correlated networks remain present across all cortical areas examined. These networks weakened over development in most cortical areas, but strengthened in V1. Overall, the conserved maintenance of modular organization across different cortical areas suggests a common pathway of network refinement, and suggests that a modular organization-known to encode functional representations in visual areas-may be similarly engaged in highly diverse brain areas.

HPSC-Derived Astrocytes at the Forefront of Translational Applications in Neurological Disorders.

Astrocytes, the most abundant glial cell type in the brain, play crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis within the central nervous system (CNS). Impairment or abnormalities of typical astrocyte functions in the CNS serve as a causative or contributing factor in numerous neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Currently, disease-modeling and drug-screening approaches, primarily focused on human astrocytes, rely on human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived astrocytes. However, it is important to acknowledge that these hPSC-derived astrocytes exhibit notable differences across studies and when compared to their in vivo counterparts. These differences may potentially compromise translational outcomes if not carefully accounted for. This review aims to explore state-of-the-art in vitro models of human astrocyte development, focusing on the developmental processes, functional maturity, and technical aspects of various hPSC-derived astrocyte differentiation protocols. Additionally, it summarizes their successful application in modeling neurological disorders. The discussion extends to recent advancements in the large-scale production of human astrocytes and their application in developing high-throughput assays conducive to therapeutic drug discovery.

Population pharmacokinetics and dose rationale for aciclovir in term and pre-term neonates with herpes.

Aciclovir is considered the first-line treatment against Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections in new-borns and infants. As renal excretion is the major route of elimination, in renally-impaired patients, aciclovir doses are adjusted according to the degree of impairment. However, limited attention has been given to the implications of immature renal function or dysfunction due to the viral disease itself. The aim of this investigation was to characterize the pharmacokinetics of aciclovir taking into account maturation and disease processes in the neonatal population. Pharmacokinetic data obtained from 2 previously published clinical trials (n = 28) were analyzed using a nonlinear mixed effects modeling approach. Post-menstrual age (PMA) and creatinine clearance (CLCR) were assessed as descriptors of maturation and renal function. Simulation scenarios were also implemented to illustrate the use of pharmacokinetic data to extrapolate efficacy from adults. Aciclovir pharmacokinetics was described by a one-compartment model with first-order elimination. Body weight and diagnosis (systemic infection) were statistically significant covariates on the volume of distribution, whereas body weight, CLCR and PMA had a significant effect on clearance. Median clearance varied from 0.2 to 1.0 L/h in subjects with PMA <34 or ≥34 weeks, respectively. Population estimate for volume of distribution was 1.93 L with systemic infection increasing this value by almost 3-fold (2.67 times higher). A suitable model parameterization was identified, which discriminates the effects of developmental growth, maturation, and organ function. Exposure to aciclovir was found to increase with decreasing PMA and renal function (CLCR), suggesting different dosing requirement for pre-term neonates.

NMR and LC–MS-based metabolomics to investigate the efficacy of a commercial bio stimulant for the treatment of wheat (Triticum aestivum)

IntroductionBio stimulants are substances and/or microorganisms that are used to improve plant growth and crop yields by modulating physiological processes and metabolism of plants. While research has primarily focused on the broad effects of bio stimulants in crops, understanding their cellular and molecular influences in plants, using metabolomic analysis, could elucidate their effectiveness and offer possibilities for fine-tuning their application. One such bio stimulant containing galacturonic acid as elicitor is used in agriculture to improve wheat vigor and strengthen resistance to lodging.ObjectiveHowever, whether a metabolic response is evolved by plants treated with this bio stimulant and the manner in which the latter might regulate plant metabolism have not been studied.MethodTherefore, the present study used 1H-NMR and LC–MS to assess changes in primary and secondary metabolites in the roots, stems, and leaves of wheat (Triticum aestivum) treated with the bio stimulant. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis effectively distinguished between treated and control samples, confirming a metabolic response to treatment in the roots, stems, and leaves of wheat.ResultsFold-change analysis indicated that treatment with the bio stimulation solution appeared to increase the levels of hydroxycinnamic acid amides, lignin, and flavonoid metabolism in different plant parts, potentially promoting root growth, implantation, and developmental cell wall maturation and lignification.ConclusionThese results demonstrate how non-targeted metabolomic approaches can be utilized to investigate and monitor the effects of new agroecological solutions based on systemic responses.

A Carbon Dioxide Refinery: The Core of a Sustainable Carbon-based Circular Economy

The atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) accumulation (2–2.5 ppmv/year) is the result of the enormous gap between its emissions (37 Gton/year) and its capture, storage, and utilization (&amp;lt;500 Mton/year). Climate has been dramatically affected due to the failure of natural sinks, in working effectively. To address this Gton-scale gap, numerous uses and applications are needed particularly, those consuming vast volumes of this compound and/or rendering longevous products or long lifecycle services. Thus, carbon utilization (CU) can be seen as the step to close the carbon cycle. Among CU, R&amp;amp;D on CO2 chemical conversion has proposed a variety of processes, with different degrees of developmental maturity. These chemical process technologies could be efficiently and effectively integrated into refineries to upgrade emitted CO2. A technology pipeline consisting of a database of these processes and the technology market status should be defined based on published scientific results and patents. Then, an innovative top-down methodology is proposed to eco-design configurations of that refinery, to warrant a sustainable carbon cycle (in terms of energy, environment, and economy) and to change the ways of producing fuels, chemicals, and materials. Additionally, the proposed methodology could be used to identify research and development gaps and needs, for orienting science and technology investments and measures. Hopefully, sustainable CO2 refineries will be implemented to close the carbon cycle of a circular C-based economy and underpin a decarbonized chemical industry.