Developmental Age Research Articles

Developmental specialists in Europe: comparison between Healthcare and education systems, and Rehabilitation in child disability

In recent years, European policies for the social inclusion of children and adolescents with disabilities have made significant progress, aimed at ensuring equity and equal opportunities in education and rehabilitative healthcare. However, notable disparities persist among European countries in managing disabilities in the developmental age. In Italy, the *Neuro and Psychomotor Therapist of Developmental Age* (TNPEE) is the healthcare professional specialized in prevention, habilitation, and rehabilitation interventions for children, providing a comprehensive development-focused approach. This study compared professional roles and healthcare and educational systems across Europe, analyzing care contexts to identify similarities and differences relative to the TNPEE’s profile and competencies. Results highlight the advantages, disadvantages, and variability in access to services and in the roles of child rehabilitation professionals, emphasizing the unique value of the TNPEE and opening a discussion on the potential for expanding this role beyond Italian borders.

Covid-19 pandemic and student academic performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract Background The COVID-19 pandemic led to widespread disruptions in educational systems globally, forcing a transition to remote learning modalities. This systemic change raised concerns about its potential impact on the academic performance of students in developmental ages. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the association between the COVID-19 pandemic and academic performance among developmental-age students, quantifying the effect size using Cohen’s d. Methods We searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Embase for studies published up to December 2023 that assessed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on academic performance. The review was performed following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The quality of the included studies was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. The pooled effect size was calculated using Cohen’s d, with its 95% confidence interval. The protocol has been registered in PROSPERO. Results Out of 3671 retrieved articles, 30 studies met the inclusion criteria, and 13 were suitable for meta-analysis, involving a combined total of 4,893,499 students. The Cohen’s d was -0.07 (95% CI = -0.10 to -0.03; p < 0.001), indicating a small but statistically significant decline in academic performance associated with the pandemic. Subgroup analyses revealed that mathematics suffered the most significant impact, with a Cohen’s d of -0.14 (95% CI = -0.18 to -0.10; p < 0.001). All the included studies were judged as moderate-high quality. Conclusions The COVID-19 pandemic has had a negative effect on the academic performance of students of developmental ages, particularly in mathematics. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to mitigate the educational setbacks caused by the pandemic, especially in core subjects where the decline in performance was most pronounced. Key messages • The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted educational systems worldwide, resulting in a small but statistically significant decline in academic performance among students of developmental ages. • The shift in educational delivery during the pandemic particularly affected learning outcomes in mathematics more than in other subjects.

Risk factors of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in the developmental age

Background: Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome (OSAS) is a prevalent respiratory sleep disorder in children, associated with severe health consequences, including hypertension, cardiac dysfunction, and neurocognitive impairment. Despite extensive research on OSAS in adults, the risk factors for pediatric OSAS remain underexplored. Objective: This literature review aims to identify and present the key risk factors associated with pediatric OSAS based on contemporary studies. Methods: A systematic search of the PubMed and Scopus databases was conducted for literature published between 2016 and 2024. Search terms included “obstructive sleep apnea,” “children,” and “risk factors.” A total of 93 relevant studies were reviewed after excluding non-pediatric and irrelevant papers from an initial pool of 283. Results: The most commonly identified risk factors for pediatric OSAS include adenoid and tonsillar hypertrophy, obesity, craniofacial abnormalities, and asthma. Additional risk factors such as allergic rhinitis, recurrent upper respiratory infections, nasal stenosis, congenital diseases, low vitamin D levels, and preterm birth were also noted. Conclusion: Pediatric OSAS is influenced by multiple factors, including anatomical, physiological, and genetic components. Further research is required to explore emerging risk factors, such as role of vitamin D deficiency and microbiota, and to clarify the impact of variables like ethnicity and breastfeeding.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a driving force regulating gene expression in bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) larvae development

This study elucidated the role of DHA-modulated genes in the development and growth of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) larvae ingesting increasing levels of DHA in their rotifer prey. The effect of feeding low, medium, and high rotifer (Brachionus rotundiformis) DHA levels (2.0, 3.6 and 10.9 mg DHA g−1 DW, respectively) was tested on 2–15 days post hatching (dph) bluefin tuna larvae. Larval DHA content markedly (P < 0.05) increased in a DHA dose-dependent manner (1.5, 3.9, 6.1 mg DHA g−1 DW larva, respectively), that was positively correlated with larval prey consumption and growth (P < 0.05). Gene ontology enrichment analyses of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) demonstrated dietary DHA significantly (P < 0.05) affected different genes and biological processes at different developmental ages. The number of DHA up-regulated DEGs was highest in 10 dph larvae (491), compared to 5 (12) and 15 dph fish (34), and were mainly involved in neural and synaptic development in the brain and spinal cord. In contrast, DHA in older 15 dph larvae elicited fewer DEGs but played critical roles over a wider range of developing organs. The emerging picture underscores the importance of DHA-modulated gene expression as a driving force in bluefin tuna larval development and growth.

RNA splicing controls organ-wide maturation of postnatal heart in mice.

Postnatal cardiac development requires the orchestrated maturation of diverse cellular components for which unifying control mechanisms are still lacking. Using full-length sequencing, we examined the transcriptomic landscape of the maturating mouse heart (E18.5-P28) at single-cell and transcript isoform resolution. We identified dynamically changing intercellular networks as a molecular basis of the maturing heart and alternative splicing (AS) as a common mechanism that distinguished developmental age. Manipulation of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) remodeled the AS landscape, cardiac cell maturation, and intercellular communication through direct binding of splice targets, which were enriched for functions related to general, as well as cell-type-specific, maturation. Overexpression of an RBP nuclear cap-binding protein subunit 2 (NCBP2) in neonatal hearts repressed cardiac maturation. Together, our data suggest AS regulation by RBPs as an organ-level control mechanism in mammalian postnatal cardiac development and provide insight into the possibility of manipulating RBPs for therapeutic purposes.

Vitamin B12 responsive developmental and epileptic encephalopathy due to a novel mutation in the FUT2 gene: a case report

BackgroundVitamin B12 deficiency is a recognised cause of neurological manifestations, including peripheral neuropathy, behavioural changes, and seizures. However, developmental and epileptic encephalopathy due to vitamin B12 deficiency is very rare. Here, we report an infant with vitamin B12-responsive developmental and epileptic encephalopathy due to a novel mutation in the fucosyltransferase 2 (FUT2) gene responsible for vitamin B12 absorption.Case presentationAn 11-month-old girl of non-consanguineous parents presented with recurrent episodes of seizures since four months. Her seizures started as flexor epileptic spasms occurring in clusters resembling infantile epileptic spasms syndrome with hypsarrhythmia in the electroencephalogram. She was treated with multiple drugs, including high-dose prednisolone, vigabatrin, sodium valproate, levetiracetam and clobazam, without any response, and she continued to have seizures at 11 months. She had an early developmental delay with maximally achieving partial head control and responsive smile at four months. Her development regressed with the onset of seizure; at 11 months, her developmental age was below six weeks. On examination, she was pale and had generalised hypotonia with normal muscle power and reflexes.Her full blood count and blood picture revealed macrocytic anaemia with oval and round macrocytes. Bone marrow aspiration showed hypercellular marrow erythropoiesis with normoblastic and megaloblastic maturation. Due to the unusual association of refractory epilepsy and megaloblastic anaemia, a rare genetic disease of the vitamin B12 or folate pathways was suspected. The whole exome sequencing revealed a homozygous missense variant in exon 2 of the FUT2 gene associated with reduced vitamin B12 absorption and low plasma vitamin B12 levels, confirming the diagnosis of vitamin B12 deficiency related developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. She was started on intramuscular hydroxocobalamin, for which she showed a marked response with reduced seizure frequency.ConclusionWe report a novel variant in the FUT2 gene associated with vitamin B12-responsive developmental and epileptic encephalopathy and megaloblastic anaemia. This case report highlights the importance of timely genetic testing in children with refractory developmental and epileptic encephalopathy to identify treatable causes.

Historical pyrodiversity in Douglas-fir forests of the southern Cascades of Oregon, USA

Our understanding of forest dynamics and successional pathways in coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var menziesii) forests with relatively frequent mixed-severity fires is limited by a lack of annually precise dendroecological reconstructions that combine records of historical fires and tree establishment. The processes by which old-forest heterogeneity developed under historical fire regimes with recurrent low- and moderate-severity fires has not been well studied at fine temporal scales and across spatial scales. We developed crossdated multi-century records of fire and tree establishment histories in old forests (170 – 550 years) at 34 plots distributed across six sites. Study sites include warm-dry to cool-moist Douglas-fir forest types found in the southern west Cascades of Oregon, USA. Spatial variability in historical fire frequency and fire effects resulted in tremendous diversity in forest developmental histories, age structure, and forest conditions. Most historical fire intervals were very frequent (<10 years) to frequent (<25 years) in dry Douglas-fir forests. Exceptionally high fire frequency and an abrupt decrease in fire frequency after European colonization in dry Douglas-fir forests adds to growing evidence and recognition of Indigenous fire stewardship in montane Douglas-fir forests. In moist forests where Douglas-fir is seral to western hemlock, fire intervals were frequent to moderately frequent (<50 years), but intervals varied substantially over time. Relatively young moist forests burned frequently while mature moist forests had long fire intervals (50–160 years). Nearly all tree establishment cohorts were preceded by either stand-replacing (28 %) or non-stand-replacing fires (64 %). However, tree cohorts only provided evidence of 16 % of historical fire events that we reconstructed from cambial fire scars. This study demonstrates that frequent fire can be an important driver of forest development and in some contexts shapes the structure of coastal old-growth Douglas-fir forests, which are often characterized as developing from endogenous disturbances during long fire-free periods. The high level of pyrodiversity we observed was associated with variation in and interactions of micro-climate, topography, fuels, and Indigenous fire stewardship. We recommend rigorous dendroecological reconstructions across the coastal Douglas-fir region to refine our understanding of the geography of fire-mediated forest developmental dynamics in this important forest type, to inform forest management, conservation, and ecocultural restoration.

Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on infants' development: analyzing the results of developmental assessments at ages 10-11 and 18-24 months.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on infant development. The study investigated the development of infants at 10-11 months of age between 2020 and 2023 by using the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development-2020 (KSPD2020), an individualized developmental scale, and the Kinder Infant Developmental Scale (KIDS), a developmental questionnaire. We compared the results of the KSPD2020 with those of a pre-pandemic developmental research and compared the developmental age (DA) of KIDS with children's chronological age (CA). Moreover, the same developmental research was conducted again on the same children at 18-24 months of age. DA for receptive language and expressive language was lower in the KIDS compared to CA in the investigation at 10-11 months. However, in the investigation at 18-24 months, there were no areas where KIDS' DA was lower than CA, and DA in the areas of manipulation, receptive language, social relationship with adults, discipline, and eating was higher than CA. On the other hand, using the KSPD2020, there were no differences when compared to pre-pandemic data in the investigation at 10-11 months. Furthermore, the investigation at 18-24 months showed that developmental quotient (DQ) was lower in the Language-Social (L-S) areas than in the investigation at 10-11 months. The lower DQ of L-S in this study was also evident in comparison to the 18-24 months pre-pandemic data. These results suggested that to investigate the medium- and long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on children's development, it is necessary to use not only parent-filled questionnaires but also individualized developmental scales. In addition, the finding that results may differ depending on the method of developmental assessment is considered important not only for developmental researchers but also for professionals involved in supporting children's development.

Multiple complex developmental disorder (MCDD): Did we throw the baby out with the bathwater too fast? A systematic review

Background Multiple complex developmental disorder (MCDD) manifests as early-onset impairment across different domains. Although it could appear as a transitional condition between autism and childhood-onset schizophrenia, interest in MCDD has progressively waned. This study attempts to discern MCDD current relevance to avoid “throwing the baby out with the bathwater” too fast. Methods All available studies published up to January 2024 were retrieved and evaluated following on the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews using the term “multiple complex developmental disorder” or “MCDD”, without any filter for study design nor year of publication. Results Only 16 studies were included and analyzed. Overall, a variable heterogeneity was observed in terms of country of investigation, study design, and clinical groups. Most of the included studies explored the construct of MCDD in developmental age, comparing MCDD mostly with autistic patients, and observing how the former group had higher levels of paranoia, illusions, and psychotic thoughts, whereas the latter showed more frequently difficulties in social interactions and stereotypical behaviors. Conclusion Overall, these results showed how progressive changes in diagnostic criteria over time led MCDD to be abandoned as nosographic construct, leaving perhaps a diagnostic void between autism and psychotic disorders that needs to be further studied. A systematic review on the Multiple Complex Developmental Disorder (MCDD): a forgotten diagnosis between autism and schizophrenia.

The importance of psychological intervention in emergencies for patients with anorexia nervosa

Dear Editor, We consider it appropriate to highlight the importance of early psychological intervention in emergencies for patients with eating disorders. In the contemporary age, characterized by incessant socio-cultural pressures and aesthetic ideals, eating disorders emerge as a complex and critical challenge to mental and physical health in individuals during developmental age. This psychiatric condition can have fatal outcomes. Approximately one-fifth to one-third of adolescent patients with Anorexia Nervosa (AN) require intensive care during the course of the illness. Access to critical care areas in healthcare facilities due to significant emaciation-related organic decompensation is increasing significantly, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. [...]

The role of sacro-iliac joint magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of axial spondyloarthritis: focus on differential diagnosis in women.

To review the role of sacro-iliac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the diagnosis of axial spondyloarthritis (AxSpA), with a focus on gender differences. The experience of the authors and the results of an informal literature review are reported. Inflammatory changes of the sacro-iliac joint are the hallmark of AxSpA. Early, non-radiographic sacroiliitis may be diagnosed with MRI through the assessment of bone marrow edema (BMO) as well as concomitant structural damage. The MRI protocol should include three necessary sequences, i.e., fat-saturated T2-weighted sequences on two orthogonal planes, T1-weighted semi-coronal sequence, and fat-suppressed T1-weighted semi-coronal sequence. Inflammatory changes comprise required signs (BMO and/or osteitis) and additional signs, including synovitis (better defined as joint space enhancement), enthesitis, and capsulitis. Structural changes consist of erosions, sclerosis, fat metaplasia, and ankylosis. Due to mechanical axial strain, inflammatory changes in the sacro-iliac joint can be found in healthy individuals, runners, and patients with nonspecific low back pain. The prevalence of BMO is higher in women during pregnancy and postpartum, even 12 months after childbirth, but the extent and distribution of MRI findings may help in the differential diagnosis. Other challenges in the MRI diagnosis of sacroiliitis are subchondral T2 hyperintensity during developmental age, periarticular sclerosis in healthy subjects, or osteitis condensans ilii, and several pathological conditions that may mimic AxSpA, some of which are more frequently found in women. The described diagnostic challenges impose a multidisciplinary approach combining imaging findings with clinical and laboratory data.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Assessment of Pediatric Dental Panoramic Radiographs (DPRs): A Clinical Study.

This clinical study aimed to evaluate the sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and precision of artificial intelligence (AI) in assessing permanent teeth in pediatric patients. Over one thousand consecutive DPRs taken in Kielce, Poland, with the Carestream CS9600 device were screened. In the study material, 35 dental panoramic radiographs (DPRs) of patients of developmental age were identified and included. They were automatically evaluated with an AI algorithm. The DPRs were then analyzed by researchers. The status of the following dichotomous variables was assessed: (1) decay, (2) missing tooth, (3) filled tooth, (4) root canal filling, and (5) endodontic lesion. The results showed high specificity and accuracy (all above 85%) in detecting caries, dental fillings, and missing teeth but low precision. This study provided a detailed assessment of AI performance in a previously neglected age group. In conclusion, the overall accuracy of AI algorithms for evaluating permanent dentition in dental panoramic radiographs is lower for pediatric patients than adults or the entire population. Hence, identifying primary teeth should be implemented in AI-driven software, at least so as to ignore them when assessing mixed dentition (ClinicalTrials.gov registration number: NCT06258798).

Object permanence in rooks (Corvus frugilegus): Individual differences and behavioral considerations.

Piagetian object permanence (OP) refers to the ability to know that an object continues to exist when out of sight: In humans, it develops in six stages. Species of great apes, other mammals, and birds (parrots, corvids, and pigeons) have been shown to possess partial or full OP, which is a prerequisite for more complex physical cognition abilities they may possess. In birds, the greatest variation is in Stage 6 (invisible displacements) and in "A-not-B" errors-incorrectly persevering in searching an empty location rewarded previously. Caching abilities have been invoked as holding explanatory power over results in corvids, for which this error is sometimes completely absent. The rook (Corvus frugilegus), a cognitively advanced, social, caching corvid, has not yet been studied for OP. This study applies tasks of one OP scale commonly adapted for nonhuman animals, Uzgiris and Hunt's Scale 1, as well as later-conceived tasks 16 and S, to a sample of adult, captive rooks. One rook demonstrated full OP (Stage 6b, multiple invisible displacements), whereas other individuals varied, attaining between Stages 5a (single visible displacements) and 6a (single invisible displacements). Like some corvids, a few made transient "A-not-B" errors. Behavioral considerations potentially underlying observed individual variation in results in rooks, including dominance, neophobia, past experiences, and individual idiosyncrasies, are examined. Rooks, like other corvids, possess well-developed OP abilities, and these results support the idea that exertion of executive control is required to avoid "A-not-B" errors, rather than caching abilities or developmental age, as previously suggested.

Neuro and Psychomotor Therapist of Developmental Age Professional in Italy: An Anomaly or an Opportunity?

The aim of this work is to explore the distinct role of the Neuro and Psychomotor Therapist of Developmental Age (TNPEE) within the Italian health care system, examining challenges in recognizing and comparing this profession with international counterparts, particularly physiotherapists and occupational therapists. The historical evolution and educational framework, integrated into the Italian university model, provide a foundation for TNPEE's competencies in rehabilitation and habilitation. The TNPEE operates within the bio-psycho-social model, addressing the developmental age range with a holistic approach. Despite its unique contributions, TNPEE faces challenges internationally because of its exclusive presence in Italy. Unlike other health care professions, TNPEE lacks a standardized international equivalent, complicating professional comparisons and mobility. This anomaly hinders the global recognition and integration of TNPEE professionals, posing a challenge to the academic medicine community in terms of standardizing and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration. This communication concludes by proposing mechanisms to facilitate TNPEE's recognition and integration into international health care frameworks. By addressing these challenges, the work contributes to the broader discourse on the cultural context in shaping effective therapeutic interventions, highlighting the need for an inclusive approach to health care education and practice worldwide.

In vivo DNA replication dynamics unveil aging-dependent replication stress

The genome duplication program is affected by multiple factors invivo, including developmental cues, genotoxic stress, and aging. Here, we monitored DNA replication initiation dynamics in regenerating livers of young and old mice after partial hepatectomy to investigate the impact of aging. In young mice, the origin firing sites were well defined; the majority were located 10-50 kb upstream or downstream of expressed genes, and their position on the genome was conserved in human cells. Old mice displayed the same replication initiation sites, but origin firing was inefficient and accompanied by a replication stress response. Inhibitors of the ATR checkpoint kinase fully restored origin firing efficiency in the old mice but at the expense of an inflammatory response and without significantly enhancing the fraction of hepatocytes entering the cell cycle. These findings unveil aging-dependent replication stress and a crucial role of ATR in mitigating the stress-associated inflammation, a hallmark of aging.

Feeding and eating disorders in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: real-word data from an observational, naturalistic study.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a substantial impact on the mental health of children and adolescents. The literature lacks large-scale research evaluating its consequences on teenagers with feeding and eating disorders (FED). This study aims to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on a population of patients of developmental age. This single-center observational study compares two historical cohorts of children and adolescents diagnosed with FED, with a first consultation before (1st March 2018 to 31st October 2019) and during (1st March 2020 to 31st October 2021) pandemic. Demographic, clinical, nutritional, and treatment variables were assessed. We enrolled 479 patients (F=398, 83.1%), including 205 (F=161, 78.5% mean age 14.5±2.5, range 7.9-17.9 years) belonging to the first historical cohort and 274 (F=237, 86.5%; 14.4±2.1, range 6.5-17.9) to the second one (+33.7%). Increased mean new accesses/month (P=0.042) and a greater percentage of females (P=0.042) during the pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic period emerged. Physical hyperactivity (P=0.022) and suicidal behaviors (P=0.030) increased, while fewer patients required hospitalization (P=0.013). An increase in first visits for FED after the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, with females being the most affected. Physical hyperactivity and self-harming behaviors were intensified, while patients in need of hospitalization were reduced. Longitudinal studies are required.

Karate Game: Using a Playful and Participatory Approach to Enhancing Children’s Social and Motor Perception during the Developmental Age

Karate Game: Using a Playful and Participatory Approach to Enhancing Children’s Social and Motor Perception during the Developmental Age

The transcriptional landscape and clinico-biological characterization of human endogenous retroviruses in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are emerging as critical elements in host genomic regulation. Aberrant HERV transcription has been implicated in developmental and tissue-specific aging and pathological processes. In this study, we presenteda comprehensive locus-specific characterization of the HERV expression landscape in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). We demonstrated the transcriptional diversity among patients and identified 12 clinically relevant HERVs in the SCH cohort, which were experimentally validated by Real-Time Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) in the CAMS cohort. ESCC patients were stratified into three HERV-based subtypes (HERVhigh, HERVmedian and HERVlow) with distinct clinical and biological characteristics. The HERVhigh subtype was associated with worse survival, increased CD4+ T cellsinfiltration and decreased metabolic activity, whereas the HERVlow subtype was characterized by abundant CD8+ T cells, increased metabolic activity, and better survival. The HERV-based tumor subtyping was further robustly validated by RNA sequencing and RT-qPCR in two additional external cohorts. Our findings demonstrate the clinical significance of HERVs for tumor subtyping and prognosis, provide insights into the functional role of HERVs and a valuable resource for developing novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets in ESCC.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a Portage program on reducing parenting stress and enhancing child development in autism spectrum disorders

BackgroundAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) manifests in early childhood and significantly impairs social and communicative functions. Parents of children with ASD typically experience higher levels of stress compared to parents of children with other disabilities or health issues. This study investigates how a home-based early intervention known as the Portage program influences parenting stress and improves family awareness by using the Parental Stress Scale (PSS), and Family Awareness Scale. We enrolled 41 children diagnosed with ASD and their parents in this study. The median age of the children was 4 years, with a predominance of males (80%). We measured changes in parenting stress and family awareness as primary outcomes, with the children’s behavior as a secondary outcome.ResultsPost-intervention assessments showed statistically significant improvements in parenting stress and family awareness (P < 0.001). Additionally, notable improvements were observed in the children’s social, language, self-help, cognitive, and motor skills, as well as general developmental age and ratio.ConclusionsA 3-month engagement with the Portage program markedly reduced stress among parents and increased family awareness regarding ASD. Significant advancements were also noted in multiple developmental domains of the children involved.

Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review.

At a developmental age, adequate physical activity is fundamental to overall health and well-being and preventing obesity. Moreover, establishing active behavior can help children and adolescents meet their growth and neurodevelopmental goals. Nutritional requirements vary according to intensity, frequency, and practiced physical activity or sport; therefore, pediatricians should give children and adolescents and their families adequate counseling, avoiding both nutrient deficiencies and excessive or inadequate supplement intake. The focus should be not only on sports performance but also on the child's well-being, growth, and neurodevelopment. Our narrative review aims to discuss the nutritional needs of children and adolescents who practice physical activity, non-competitive sports activity, and elite sports activity while also analyzing the role of food supplements and the risk of eating disorders within this category of subjects.