Rocket Development Research Articles

State primary special standard of impulse current unit in the range from 1.0 to 1.0·105 A GET 202-2024

Metrological assurance of immunity tests to impulse currents of natural and artificial origin is an urgent task in the development and production of aviation, rocket and space equipment and telecommunication equipment. The State primary special standard of lightning discharge impulse current unit GET 202-2012 provided the unity of measurements of impulse current parameters in the amplitude range from 1 to 100 kA and the time range from hundreds of nanoseconds to units of milliseconds. In order to provide metrological support for measuring instruments for impulse currents of electrostatic discharges and switching currents (rise time of the transient response of at least 1 ns, measurement range from 1 to 200 A), GET 202-2012 underwent a modernization cycle in 2020–2023. As a result of the modernization, the State Primary Special Standard of the unit of pulse current in the range from 1.0 to 1.0·105 A GET 202-2024 was approved, the lower limit of the range of reproduction of the unit of pulse current of which was 1 A with a pulse front duration of no more than 1 ns. Thus, the problem of ensuring the uniformity of measurements of electrostatic discharges and power switching impulse currents parameters was solved. To achieve the specified characteristics, GET 202-2024 includes devices for reproducing current pulses based on semiconductor keys and reference current shunts with a short rise time. The composition, structural diagram, technical and metrological characteristics of GET 202-2024 are given. GET 202-2024 ensures the uniformity of measurements of the parameters of pulse currents of electrostatic discharges, partial lightning discharges, as well as pulse currents generated by switching processes when solving problems of electromagnetic compatibility, creating new types of materials and coatings, in geophysical and meteorological research and observations, in healthcare.

PERTURBED MOTIONS OF A NEARLY DYNAMICALLY SPHERICAL RIGID BODY WITH A MOVABLE MASS SUBJECT TO CONSTANT BODY-FIXED TORQUE

The problem of motion of a rigid body about a fixed point is one of the classical problems of mechanics. The interest to the problems of the rigid body dynamics has increased in the second half of the XX century in connection with the development of rocket and space technologies. A spacecraft or satellite, while orbiting about its center of mass, experiences torques from forces of diverse physical nature. This includes torques generated by the motion of internal masses, which can arise from factors such as presence of rotating components (like rotors or gyroscopes), and the activities of crew members aboard the crew vehicle. The dynamics of rigid body incorporated moving masses is a significant focal point in classical mechanics. Extensive research is dedicated to investigating the rotation of a rigid body featuring motion of internal masses. It is assumed that the body contains a viscoelastic element that is modeled by a moving mass connected to the body by a strong damper. The moving mass model loosely attached elements in a space vehicles, which can significantly affect the vehicle’s motion about its center of mass during a long period of time. Some cases are considered of the motion of a rigid body containing internal masses connected to the body by means of elastic and dissipative elements. A number of works are devoted to the analysis of various problems of the dynamics of space vehicles containing internal movable masses. The paper develops an approximate solution by means of averaging method to the system of Euler’s equation terms for a nearly dynamically spherical rigid body containing a viscoelastic element under the action of constant body-fixed torque. We obtained the system of motion equations in the standard form which refined in square-approximation by small parameter. Asymptotic approach permits to obtain some qualitative results and to describe evolution of angular motion using simplified averaged equations and numerical solution. The main objective of this paper is to extend the previous results for the problem of motion about a center of mass of a rigid body under the influence of small internal torque (cavity filled with a fluid of high viscosity) or external torque (resistive medium). The importance of the results is in progress of moving mass control motion of spinning projectiles.

Enhanced catalytic influence of carbon-supported Ti/Co bimetallic oxide nanocomposites on combustion of AP/HTPB propellants

Development and application of solid rockets have put forward new requirements for the combustion performance of AP/HTPB propellants. Herein, carbon-supported Ti/Co bimetallic oxide (MTiCo) nanocomposites with carbon skeleton and porous structure were proposed to use as catalysts for improving the combustion performance of AP/HTPB propellants. For AP decomposition, MTiCo-2 (2.0 wt%) reduced the AP HD temperature by 93.1 °C and enhanced heat release by about 356.3 %. Simultaneously, MTiCo-2 (2.0 wt%) significantly decreased Ea of AP HD stage by 51.4 %. MTiCo-2 (2.0 wt%) also reduced the ignition delay of AP/HTPB propellant by 78.3 % and enhanced combustion rate by 192.0 %. The synergistic effect of catalysis and combustion support of MTiCo-2 provided by the structure of carbon-supported Ti/Co bimetallic oxide was the main mechanism for improving the combustion performance of AP/HTPB propellants.

Hollow microsphere-reinforced ablative materials for thermal protection systems of solid rocket motors

The rapid development of large heavy-duty solid rockets has placed increasing demands on the density and ablation resistance of thermal protection system (TPS) materials. Hollow microspheres (HMs) are promising reinforcing materials. However, HMs break under mechanical extrusion during material preparation, which limits their development into high-performance TPS materials. In this study, a novel preparation scheme was designed for low-damage TPS materials. High-strength HMs were selected to reduce their breakage. Moreover, a TPS material with low density and excellent ablation resistance was developed. The density reduction of the HM formulation was considerably higher than that reported in other studies. This study addressed the problem of easy HM breakage during material preparation. Consequently, HM-reinforced TPS materials with low density and excellent ablation resistance were developed to help reduce the negative mass and improve the comprehensive performance of solid rocket motors.

Dibenzo[b,d]thiophene 5,5-dioxide-based dopant-free hole-transporting material with passivation effect in inverted perovskite solar cells

For the rocket development of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells (OIH–PSCs), the research of low-cost, dopant-free hole-transporting materials (HTMs) with high performance and stability is still an urgent problem. In this work, we synthesize organic small molecule HTM with sulfone-containing benzodithiophene (BDTOxide) as the central unit, termed BDTOxide-MTP. The synthetic cost of DBTOxide-MTP in the lab is 238 CNY/g, which is just one-fifth of the cost of the PTAA (1200 CNY/g). BDTOxide-MTP exhibits the deep highest occupied molecular orbital energy level, high hole transport mobility, and excellent passivation effect. BDTOxide-MTP is introduced into inverted OIH-PSCs as a dopant-free hole transport layer, the champion efficiency of MAPbI3-xClx-based devices reaches 18.72 % with an excellent VOC of 1.13 V, while the efficiency of the control device based on PTAA is about 18.49 %. The device based on BDTOxide-MTP exhibits comparable stability to the one based on PTAA, which can maintain over 90 % of the original efficiency after 46 days in a nitrogen environment.

Government Policy or Market Mechanism, Which Is Better for Chinese Private Rocket Enterprises

In 2015, Chinese Government issued the<i> Notice on the National Civil Space Infrastructure Medium - and Long-Term Development Plan (2015-2025)</i>, announcing that it would support and guide social capitals to participate in the application and development of national civil space infrastructure construction. Later, Chinese private companies are allowed to apply for launch licenses, breaking the traditional model of allocating funds from the state budget and developing rockets only by the "national teams". Many Chinese private rocket companies were registered and established afterwards, and some of them have successfully launched rockets several times in recent years. At the same time, Chinese private rocket enterprises are also facing with many problems, including the low success rate of rockets, the risk of rocket debris falling, high space insurance rates, space junk, talent competition, and corporate survival, etc. In 2023, the Chinese Government issued <i>Notice on Strengthening the License Management for Civil Space Launch Projects</i>, which requires the third-party liability insurance policy and space debris mitigation plan for launch licenses application, meanwhile the last sub-stage of the launch vehicle should de-orbit according to the regulations after taking measures such as passivation, using government policy tools to regulate and guide the development of private rockets. In conclusion, in order to promote the healthy development of commercial launch service industry, the market mechanism should play a leading role, while appropriately regulation and adjustment from the government policy are also needed. In addition, this paper also suggested that the Chinese government should carry out overall planning for the division of labor and product models of state-owned and private rocket companies.

Diagnostic analysis of potential risks and security systems in rocket development as a supporter of the defense environment ecosystem

State defense is essentially all universal defense efforts which means involving all citizens, territories, and other national resources, as well as being prepared early by the government and held in a total, integrated, directed, and continuous manner to uphold state sovereignty, territorial integrity and the safety of the entire nation from all threats both from outside and from within. This research aims to diagnostically analyze the potential risks and safety systems in rocket development as a benchmarking and basic foothold in the growth of the weapons technology ecosystem. This research uses a qualitative approach method with a literature study approach. The results obtained are in the form of various potential risks which can provide failures and losses in rocket development. The safety system that is possible to implement by prioritizing the suitability found in Indonesian rocket development, is to review and ensure the stages of preparation, integration and testing (or similar) in rocket development.

The Press and the Intelligence Community: The Construction of OTRAG and Cóndor as Global Threats

This article studies the way the US government through the Central Intelligence Agency, the Washington Post and the New York Times approached in tandem the development of rockets in Argentina and in two African countries (Zaire and Libya) during the last stretch of the Cold War. A qualitative analysis is carried out from primary government and journalistic sources, looking at how the media acted alongside the government and the intelligence community, providing the same information and a very similar interpretation of the facts, building common sense and a geopolitical imaginary. This is a geopolitical analysis of the construction of imagery of the dangerous identity of the OTRAG and the Cóndor II in the 1970s and 1980s. The conclusions show that both cases were construed as a geopolitical identity on non-core countries that ended in pressures, the projects be terminated, managing to build a sense by which the economic and political interests of the United States were projected hegemonically as universal interests.

Characteristics research of a low thrust rocket engine manufactured using additive SLM technology

The development and improvement of rocket and space technology are largely determined by the application of manufacturing technologies that enable the production of high-reliability products with energy efficiency, while simultaneously reducing material intensity and shortening the production cycle. Among these progressive technologies, additive technologies should be mentioned. The essence of these technologies lies in obtaining parts through layer-by-layer melting of material based on a computer 3D model of the product in a chamber of a specialized 3D printer equipped with a laser device. The application of additive technologies in rocket engine construction requires extensive scientific research and experimental work to confirm compliance with industry standards, rules, and mandatory certification at the state level. In accordance with the program of priority research at SibSU, in collaboration with the industrial partner “Polychrome” LLC a complex of experimental work is being carried out to test and refine the 3D printing modes of a demonstrator model of a low thrust rocket engine (LTRE). The design of the LTRE, operating on environmentally friendly gaseous fuel components, has been developed and adapted for 3D printing on the ASTRA 420 printer. The parameters and characteristics of the printer are considered, and the sequence of experimental work on selecting printing modes for the engine chamber housing and mixing head is outlined. The fundamental possibility of adjusting the modes of laser material melting and forming of the part has been established. The main technological stages of post-printing processing of LTRE chamber parts are presented. A description of the equipment for heat treatment and electrochemical polishing of parts is provided. The sequence of material structure research is outlined, and the results of metallographic and X-ray analysis of the internal state of the metal are presented. The importance of stand tests of rocket engines in the development of innovative design solutions and the implementation of innovative production technologies is demonstrated. A description and composition of the testing stand system at SibSU are presented. The results of stand firing tests indicate the fundamental possibility of manufacturing LTRE using selective laser melting of heat-resistant alloy.

Risk Assessment of Solid Propellant Rocket Motor using a Combination of HAZOP and FMEA Methods

The development of rockets in Indonesia has long been carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (LAPAN), which has now been integrated into the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN). The Research Centre for Rocket Technology, which is one of the centres within BRIN, has been developing solid propellant-based rockets with a various sizes and types. Solid-propellant rocket technology is commonly used because of their reliability, cost-effectiveness, and simple design. However, this technology is one of the high-risk technologies, whose failure can harm humans, damage the environment and cause huge losses to assets. As a high-risk technology, risk assessment activities must be carried out, starting from the design, manufacturing, testing and up to the launching stage. In this paper, we studied a risk assessment for general Solid-propellant Rocket Motor (SRM). SRM is basically a device that processes chemical energy in solid propellant into thrust (kinetic energy) in a container that functions as a pressure vessel. The risk assessment methods commonly used in this technology are the HAZOP or FMEA methods. The HAZOP is excellent in identifying failure modes systematically through identifying the deviation of physical process parameters but has difficulties in prioritizing the risk. The FMEA has effectiveness in understanding failure mechanisms and establishing necessary countermeasures, but for a product with a lot of components, the worksheet is also complex. By combining these two methods, integrating the superiority of each method, this research can identify modes, causes and effects of failure that may occur in SRM effective and accurately. In addition, this research also proposes corrective or preventive actions for each failure mode. As the objective of the risk assessment, results of the research can be used as input for the designers to improve their design and as inspection and surveillance objects for QC officers.

Bridging the Technology Gap: Strategies for Hybrid Rocket Engines

Hybrid rocket propulsion, first demonstrated by the Russian GIRD-09 rocket in 1933, combines liquid oxidizer and solid fuel for thrust generation. Despite numerous advantages, such as enhanced safety, controllability, and potential environmental benefits, hybrid propulsion has yet to achieve its full potential in space applications. In recent years, the research on hybrid propulsion has gained enormous momentum in both academia and industry. Recent accomplishments such as the altitude record for student rockets (64 km), the launch of the first electric pump-fed hybrid rocket, and a successful 25 s hovering test highlight the potential of hybrid rockets. However, although the hybrid community is growing constantly, industrial utilizations and in-space validations do not yet exist. In this work, we reassess the possibilities of hybrid rocket engines by presenting potential fields of applications from the literature. Most importantly, we identify the technical challenges that hinder the breakthrough of hybrid propulsion in the space sector and evaluate the technologies and approaches necessary to bridge the gaps in hybrid rocket development.

Lessons learned and the recent achievements of a three-stage suborbital rocket production

The project presented in this article, which consists in designing and launching a three-stage suborbital rocket with a 40 kg payload covers the subjects of the rapid development of a multi-stage proof-of-concept vehicle with a limited time to deploy. These finite resources and a negligible percentage of the technology available tested in-house in advance led to the implementation of chosen, well-known industrial solutions into the concept for a winning strategy. This paper presents the recent achievements and lessons learned from the production phase of the components, namely: the rocket motor, control section compartment, guidance and navigation bay, together with recent achievements and future challenges. This set of components, derived from the project, will fill the gap in the technological chain for future Polish launchers and munition. The three-stage suborbital rocket development project is divided into three phases, which will last a total of three years. The first phase is the conceptual design stage, along with laboratory tests of solutions and subsystems used in the rocket. The second phase consists in flight tests for individual stages, together with the decisive flight of a three-stage rocket made to reach the Kármán line. The final stage involves the commercialization of the developed technology and the creation of a service for carrying research loads of up to 40 kg. The project is valued at approximately USD 5 million. The project is co-financed by the National Centre for Research and Development (NCRD) as part of dedicated support for the Polish space industry.

System engineering research of a multirotor aircraft as a prospective technical means of exploring the atmosphere and surface of the planet Venus

Currently, the exploration of the planet Venus is a very relevant and developing direction in space science. The development of rocket and space technologies has expanded the boundaries of accessibility of spacecraft to objects in the Solar System, allow for entire interplanetary expeditions, including flights to terrestrial planets, giant planets, and the outskirts of the Solar System. Currently, a program of planetary exploration for the next decades is being formed. Studying the history of expeditions to Venus and Mars clarifies the need to develop and improve methods for studying the atmosphere of the nearest planets to Earth, in particular, Venus, using vailable technical means, making them as efficient as possible. The exploration of Venus is proposed to be carried out using a technical means– a multirotor aircraft. This object is allocated as a system, and its role in the composition of the supersystem is also defined and described. The paper identifies scenarios for the functioning of the flying apparatus are highlighted, the tasks of its subsystems are described, as well as their interaction with each other. The main external factors affecting the work of the subsystems of the multirotor aircraft are presented. A functional scheme of the system is developed, as well as the main indicators used to assess the effectiveness of achieving the target task. This work is a preliminary stage before building a mathematical model.

Peculiarities of archival information resources legal regulation in the field of research on the development of the rocket and space industry

It has been noted that in the course of military events on the territory of Ukraine, where the Russian Federation has fired thousands of ballistic and cruise missiles, killing thousands of Ukrainians, interest in the topic of rocket and space technology has increased significantly. The interest of the Ukrainian population in information about the possibilities for the development of the rocket and space industry in Ukraine and its position in the global space services market has grown especially. One of the fundamental problems in the study of the historical development of the rocket and space industry is the closed nature of archival information resources due to the fact that the vast majority of these material carriers of information have access restrictions and are stored in the archival departments of the development organisations, while other documents that lose their technical relevance are destroyed.
 It has been noted that the List of topics whose scientific and technical documentation is to be included in the National Archival Fond and transferred to state storage contains very little information on rocket and space issues. An important source in the field of rocket and space activities is the museum collections of organisations where certain equipment was developed and produced. Another important source of information is interviews with direct participants in the development of rocket and space technology, i.e. oral sources of information. First-hand details of the formation and development of rocket and space technology provide a lot of valuable information, and it is advisable to use the practice of “oral sources of information” as long as it is possible.
 The possibility of granting such oral sources of information the status of an official document in the legal field has been considered. An emphasis is placed on the need to verify the reliability of information obtained from interviews, which is carried out through an examination of the value of such information. In addition, the need to guarantee the preservation of oral sources of information on rocket and space activities in the archives of Ukraine and ensure their availability for use by the public of today and future generations has been stressed.

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation aka SpaceX’s Amazing Accomplishments: A complete Analysis

This paper presents an overview of SpaceX which is a private limited United States aerospace maker/producer and space transportation service provider company which was founded by Elon Reeve Musk in 2002. The main goal of SpaceX is to reduce the cost of space transportation and in the end enable the colonization of fourth planet in our solar system that is Mars. Since its inception, SpaceX has achieved many significant milestones in space exploration. One of the most notable achievements of SpaceX was the development of reusable rockets and spacecraft, which has greatly reduced the cost of space transportation. SpaceX has also successfully launched and landed multiple rockets, including the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy. These rockets have been used to launch satellites into orbit, resupply the International Space Station, and deliver payloads to deep space. In addition, SpaceX has also developed the Crew Dragon spacecraft, which has successfully transported astronauts to and from the ISS that is International Space Station. Looking towards the future, SpaceX has many ambitious plans for space exploration. The company plans to launch the Starship spacecraft, which is designed for deep space missions and has the potential to transport humans to Mars. SpaceX also aims to establish a permanent human presence on Mars within the next decade. Keywords: SpaceX, Elon Musk, Artificial Intelligence, Falcon, Rocket, and many.

Introduction to the concept of modular blocks for lunar infrastructure

With the major progress of the Artemis program, and the development of NASA's largest rocket since the Apollo era capable of interplanetary travel, Americans are closer than ever to reaching back for the Moon, but this time with the intent of establishing a constant human presence. This vision is further strengthened by the rise of the private rocket sector with SpaceX, RocketLab, Relativity Space, Blue Origin, etc. The establishment of the lunar infrastructure will be a stepping-stone towards reaching for a farther destination, Mars. This paper presents a novel idea of lunar infrastructure construction, with a focus on habitation modules, based on the recently published work by the authors, focusing on the preliminary trade study of various concepts of lunar habitats. The modular blocks are introduced, representing the main building components for any lunar infrastructure. The modular blocks for habitat structures are designed as hollow bricks, optimized in a way that requires the least amount of construction material while implementing 3D printing technologies and minimizing the on-site human construction and assembly. Furthermore, different constructability techniques are presented, together with the initial stages of their development and materials which can be used for their manufacturing. Future work will encompass material properties, a more detailed explanation of manufacturing, global design, and structural analyses.

On development and use of rockets for Mars atmosphere sounding

On development and use of rockets for Mars atmosphere sounding

Generalized additive-multiplicative risk estimation model based on fuzzy and interval initial data

Among the mathematical models of risk research, an important place is occupied by additive-multiplicative models of risk estimation. The components of such models are: three-stage hierarchical risk systems (built for a specific applied situation); partial risk estimators (determined by experts for a specific project, product, etc.); indicators of the weight of specific types of partial risks (found on the basis of a survey of experts in a particular application area); algorithms for calculating group risk estimators based on partial risk estimators and general risk estimator based on group risk estimators. As examples, three-stage hierarchical risk systems are considered in the production of a new innovative product and in the implementation of projects for the development of rocket and space technology. An algorithm for an additive-multiplicative model for risk estimation of a general form is proposed. Estimates of partial risks are products of weighting indicators by severity indicators, which corresponds to the well-known method of risk estimation in the form of the product of average damage by the probability of an undesirable event. Group risk estimators are built additively from i partial risk estimators, and the final overall risk estimator is calculated multiplicatively from group risk estimators. In previous works of the author, a special case of an additive-multiplicative risk estimation model was considered, in which, in particular, the components of the model were interpreted in terms of probability theory. It is proposed to carry out estimators of partial risks and weight coefficients on the basis of interval mathematics and fuzzy theory. The rules of arithmetic operations on interval and triangular fuzzy numbers are given. The application of the algorithm of the additive-multiplicative risk estimation model based on triangular fuzzy numbers is demonstrated using the example of risk estimation for the implementation of innovative projects. Within the framework of interval mathematics, risk estimators are considered in the implementation of projects for the development of rocket and space technology. The approach developed in this research article corresponds to the main provisions of the theory of stability of mathematical models of real phenomena and processes and to the results of systemic fuzzy interval mathematics.

Development of a Liquid-Propellant Rocket Powered by a Rotating Detonation Engine

This paper presents work on a demonstrator rocket powered by a rotating detonation engine (RDE) fed by liquid propellants. Key to the success of the project was the development of a suitably efficient and lightweight RDE. After selecting the propellants: nitrous oxide () and propane (), laboratory tests were carried out on RDEs with different combustion chamber geometries. The conical geometry showed the best performance, and it was selected for further development; on this basis, the target RDE was designed and built in two versions: uncooled and regeneratively cooled. These were tested in laboratory conditions, but only the regeneratively cooled engine met the requirements. After successful laboratory testing of the engine, a demonstration rocket was designed and built. Static tests made in a vertical position confirmed that the rocket had sufficient operational performance (net thrust and total impulse). Ultimately, the liquid-propellant RDE-powered rocket made a successful flight. To the authors’ knowledge, it was the first liquid-fuel rocket in the world to take off and fly exclusively by means of RDE propulsion.

Application Energetic Materials for Solid Composite Propellant to Support Defense Rocket Development

In its application in space technology, solid composite propellants are often used as fuel in rockets for military purposes. Increasing the energy of the propellant is carried out by observing two stages, the use of energetic materials and improvements to the process technology. The current development of propellant technology makes it possible to use new energetic materials, simple formulations, high energy, and smokeless. The purpose of this research is to find out developments related to the use of highly energetic materials as raw materials for composite propellants for defense rockets at the Rocket Technology Research Center, ORPA-BRIN. This study uses qualitative analysis methods with research designs in the literature studies and simulation results. In the context of mastering rocket propellant technology in Indonesia, the application of highly energetic materials is expected to be able to solve the problem of rocket propulsion performance. Currently, the Rocket Technology Research Center, ORPA-BRIN is developing a smokeless propellant composite with a composition based on the energetic materials AP/HTPB/Al and an oxidizing agent RDX. From the results of the combustion simulation software ProPEP and RPA, it shows that the composition of the resulting combustion gaseous (Al2O3 and HCl) shows a decrease when using RDX energetic material-based propellant. It's known that RDX can significantly reduce smoke in propellant combustion products. The application of the new highly energetic materials compound is expected to significantly solve the problem of solid rocket propulsion performance.