Development Of Lexicon Research Articles

A novel gene editing lexicon strategy for the haemophilia community: Research plan for development and preliminary results.

Despite the progress in gene editing platforms like CRISPR/Cas9 with thepotential to transform the standard of care for haemophilia, the language used to explain and discuss gene editing is not aligned across the haemophilia community. Here, we present the objective and rationale for developing a clear, consistent, and globally aligned gene editing lexicon to address these communication gaps. Effectively communicating complex gene editing concepts requires a clear and consistent vocabulary. Through collaboration with a diversity of haemophilia stakeholders, our main goal is to develop an accurate, informative lexicon which avoids overpromising or highly technical terminology. Using an innovative process, representatives from several patient and scientific haemophilia organizations and select biotechnology companies will develop and refine language concepts to be tested with approximately seventy participants across the United States of America, United Kingdom, and Germany. Participants will include lived experience experts (LEEs) and haematologists. The process will be overseen by the Lexicon Steering Committee of global experts from leading scientific and patient organizations in the haemophilia and gene editing fields. Initial feedback provided a robust foundation and rationale for building clear, consistent language around gene editing. This lexicon development framework will allow for increased understanding across the haemophilia community, including thedevelopment of valid informed consent and shared decision-making materials. Results provide important building blocks for stimuli development and highlight the need for a novel gene editing lexicon. In the next phase, language stimuli will be tested with LEEs and haematologists to better understand audience preferences and help shape the final lexicon.

Evolution of the Moral Lexicon.

Morality is central to social well-being and cognition, and moral lexicon is a key device for human communication of moral concepts and experiences. How was the moral lexicon formed? We explore this open question and hypothesize that words evolved to take on abstract moral meanings from concrete and grounded experiences. We test this hypothesis by analyzing semantic change and formation of over 800 words from the English Moral Foundations Dictionary and the Historical Thesaurus of English over the past hundreds of years. Across historical text corpora and dictionaries, we discover concrete-to-abstract shifts as words acquire moral meaning, in contrast with the broad observation that words become more concrete over time. Furthermore, we find that compound moral words tend to be derived from a concrete-to-abstract shift from their constituents, and this derivational property is more prominent in moral words compared to alternative compound words when word frequency is controlled for. We suggest that evolution of the moral lexicon depends on systematic metaphorical mappings from concrete domains to the moral domain. Our results provide large-scale evidence for the role of metaphor in shaping the historical development of the English moral lexicon.

Welcome to this Brave Bro’s World: the (Re)production of hegemonic masculinity in a Chinese manosphere

ABSTRACT Building on a feminist critical discourse analysis, this study reveals the mechanism of the continuous reproduction of hegemonic masculinity in a Chinese manosphere, Hupu, the biggest sports fandom platform in China. As an ideological foundation on Hupu, hegemonic masculinity directs misogynistic practices (e.g. sexualization of women and misogynistic lexicon development) and shapes an imagined community of toxic brotherhood. In turn, the misogynistic practices and this community of brotherhood also reproduce hegemonic masculinity, ensuring a cycle of the maintenance of a toxic manosphere. We further consider the socio-political context in contemporary China to criticize how state power, platform affordances, and hegemonic masculinity are intertwined and jeopardize Chinese feminism both online and offline.

The development of an emotion lexicon for spicy food flavor experience

The sensory properties of food are the most important source of food-induced emotional responses. Spicy flavor is characterized by burning, stinging, or tingling, which gives a unique flavor to the sensory experience of food. The aim of the current study was to develop an emotion lexicon to measure the emotional responses to spicy food flavor. In Experiment 1, a focus group of frequent (N = 30) and infrequent (N = 30) spicy food consumers were interviewed to generate emotion words after tasting spicy food samples. After semantic analysis, comparison with published emotion lists, and positive and negative evaluations, a lexicon of 33 emotion words (21 positive and 12 negative emotion words) was developed for spicy flavor experiences. In Experiment 2, by applying the rate-all-that-apply technique, a separate group of participants (N = 91) rated the intensity of emotions before and after eating various spicy foods in small portions using the emotion lexicon generated in Experiment 1. Validation of the emotion lexicon shows that the high and the low spicy preference groups can be distinguished by most positive words (19 out of 21) and 4 negative words. Furthermore, participants’ spicy eating habits were significantly predicted by the positive or negative emotions associated with the spicy flavor experience during food tasting. Overall, the emotion lexicon serves as a valuable tool for investigating the affective correlates of spicy flavor across diverse spicy preference groups and holds promise for broader application to various products.

What Are the Sensory Attributes Associated with Consumer Acceptance of Yellow Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus citrinopileatus)?

The oyster mushroom is cultivated globally, renowned for its unique texture and umami flavor, as well as its rich content of nutrients and functional ingredients. This study aims to identify the descriptive sensory characteristics, assess the consumer acceptability of new superior lines and cultivars of yellow oyster mushrooms, in addition to exploring the relationship between these descriptive characteristics and consumer acceptability. Statistical analyses were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), and partial least squares regression (PLSR). Twenty attributes were delineated, including three related to appearance/color (gray, yellow, and white), four associated with the smell/odor of fresh mushroom (oyster mushroom, woody, fishy, and seafood smells), three pertaining to the smell/odor of cooked mushrooms (mushroom, umami, and savory smells), four describing flavor/taste (sweet, salty, umami, and savory tastes), and five for texture/mouthfeel (chewy, smooth, hard, squishy, and slippery textures). Consumer acceptability tests involved 100 consumers who evaluated overall liking, appearance, overall taste, sweetness, texture, savory taste, MSG taste, smell, color, purchase intention, and recommendation. The general oyster mushroom (548 samples) scored highest in acceptability. Seven attributes, namely fresh mushroom smell, seafood smell (fresh), fishy smell (fresh), umami smell (cooked), nutty smell (cooked), salty taste, and MSG taste with the exception of appearance showed significant differences among samples (p < 0.001). The three yellow oyster mushroom samples were strongly associated with attributes like hardness, softness (texture), sweet taste (745 samples), MSG taste, salty taste, squishy texture, and fishy smell (483 and 629 samples). The development of sensory lexicons and increasing consumer acceptance of new superior lines and cultivars of yellow oyster mushroom will likely enhance sensory quality and expand the consumer market, aligning with consumer needs and preferences.

The Emergence and Development of Palestinian Arabic Lexicon and Morphosyntax From 18 to 36 Months: A Communicative Development Inventory Study.

This study presents a comprehensive exploration of lexical and grammatical development in Palestinian Arabic (PA). The study aims to test the validity of the Palestinian Arabic Communicative Development Inventory (PA-CDI) as well as generate growth curves for lexical and morphosyntactic development, examine the order of emergence of both lexical and morphosyntactic categories, and explore the contribution of demographic and developmental factors to language development. Data were collected from 1,399 parents of PA children aged 18-36 months using an online PA-CDI. The results show that as age increased, so did lexical and morphosyntactic production, along with considerable variability across individuals. While lexical development in PA resembles the order observed in other languages with nouns preceding verbs and adjectives, morphosyntactic development indicates early emergence of verbal inflectional morphology prior to noun pluralization or negation. Age of word combination and health problems are predictive of lexical and morphosyntactic development, and so are parental concerns. Our findings indicate the potential of the PA-CDI as an assessment tool for lexical and morphosyntactic development among PA-speaking children in Israel. Our developmental growth curves may also be used to identify children at risk for developmental language disorder, particularly those falling below the 10th percentile, thus allowing for early identification and early intervention. The use of background variables, specifically parental concerns, health issues, and word combinations, along with the PA-CDI, could potentially enhance the precision of language delay assessment. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26026777.

The Church lexicon as a lexical category

The article focuses on the study of church lexicon as a lexical category. The aim of this article is to analyze and compare different linguistic points of view on the key stages of church lexicon development in the Russian and English languages, to determine a working definition of the category “church lexicon”, as well as its most important elements. In order to achieve this goal, the methods of analyzing sources, their subsequent comparison and contrast, identification of analogies and similarities were used, as well as synthesis of information extracted from these sources.The material includes dissertations, scientific articles and other works of modern Russian scholars considering the concepts “church lexicon” and “religious lexicon”, comparing and juxtaposing them, as well as singling out constituent elements of the categories “church lexicon”, “religious lexicon”, “sacral lexicon”, and “liturgical lexicon”. In this article are used the works of such scholars as A.A. Azarov, I.V. Bugaeva, S.V. Bulavina, N.S. Valgina, R.I. Goryushina, E.V. Kakorina, I.A. Koroleva, T.I. Kosheleva and others.The results of the research show that the interest in the church lexicon as a lexical category among Russian linguists has increased since the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries due to the revival of the Christian Church of various denominations, as well as other religious organizations. The long period of persecution of the Christian Church in Russia has affected church vocabulary, marginalizing it and relegating it to the periphery of the language. In the UK, USA and other English-speaking linguistic communities, the activities of the Christian Church have never been banned or persecuted, and the history of church vocabulary in the English language as such has never faced marginalization similar to that in Russia.It has also been established that church vocabulary is part of the broader category of “religious vocabulary” and includes basic concepts from the sphere of the life of the Christian Church. Although scholars argue about the constituents of the category “church lexicon”, many agree that it includes the names of sacraments and rites, elements of the church calendar, names of church buildings and their elements, items of decoration, elements of vestments, as well as names of persons in relation to the Christian faith and the Christian Church.This article may be of interest to philologists, linguists, and teachers of the Russian and English languages.

Classifying Individuals With Rheumatic Conditions as Financially Insecure Using Electronic Health Record Data and Natural Language Processing: Algorithm Derivation and Validation.

We aimed to examine the feasibility of applying natural language processing (NLP) to unstructured electronic health record (EHR) documents to detect the presence of financial insecurity among patients with rheumatologic disease enrolled in an integrated care management program (iCMP). We incorporated supervised, rule-based NLP and statistical methods to identify financial insecurity among patients with rheumatic conditions enrolled in an iCMP (n = 20,395) in a multihospital EHR system. We constructed a lexicon for financial insecurity using data from available knowledge sources and then reviewed EHR notes from 538 randomly selected individuals (training cohort n = 366, validation cohort n = 172). We manually categorized records as having "definite," "possible," or "no" mention of financial insecurity. All available notes were processed using Narrative Information Linear Extraction, a rule-based version of NLP. Models were trained using the NLP features for financial insecurity using logistic, least absolute shrinkage operator (LASSO), and random forest performance characteristic and were compared with the reference standard. A total of 245,142 notes were processed from 538 individual patient records. Financial insecurity was present among 100 (27%) individuals in the training cohort and 63 (37%) in the validation cohort. The LASSO and random forest models performed identically and slightly better than logistic regression, with positive predictive values of 0.90, sensitivities of 0.29, and specificities of 0.98. The development of a context-driven lexicon used with rule-based NLP to extract data that identify financial insecurity is feasible for use and improved the capture for presence of financial insecurity with high accuracy. In the absence of a standard lexicon and construct definition for financial insecurity status, additional studies are needed to optimize the sensitivity of algorithms to categorize financial insecurity with construct validity.

Academic Lexicon Development in an EMI Context: A Study of Pre-Service English Teachers' Lexical Availability

Academic Lexicon Development in an EMI Context: A Study of Pre-Service English Teachers' Lexical Availability

Fragrance lexicon for analysis of consumer-generated perfume reviews in Russian and English

In recent years, there has been a rise in research on sensorium in various academic disciplines. Olfaction is recognized as a sense that is most closely linked to cognition, memory and emotion. Due to this unique feature, studies on various aspects of human olfaction are steadily gaining prominence in the humanities and social sciences. In order to understand how the olfactory modality is marked, several taxonomies and semantic spaces of olfactory terms have been developed. However, the focus has been on the general olfaction lexicon and there is a lack of systematic and comprehensive lexicons for fragrant smells. This article addresses this gap. It adopts a multilingual perspective and describes the process of developing a fragrance lexicon in two languages, Russian and English. A fragrance lexicon refers to a list of words that people might use to describe a perfume. The steps in the lexicon development included•sourcing the lexical items in the two languages•translating and cleaning the word lists•revising and refining the lexiconThe fragrance lexicon presented in this article can be used to aid linguistic analyses of naturally occurring communications about perfumes, such as computational analyses of consumer-generated perfume reviews.

Reasons why it is time to change imaging guidelines on endometriosis.

In light of the rising number of patients referred for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) due to suspected endometriosis and the high expectations of these patients, there is a need for new imaging guidelines to optimally protocol and indicate MRI and transvaginal ultrasonography (TVUS) examinations. This is crucial for accurately addressing the inquiries of gynecologists, encompassing complete mapping and preoperative staging, and facilitating effective communication with patients. In this context, the development of a standardized lexicon, as well as dedicated imaging classifications, is recommended to aid in the comprehensive management of patients. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: The radiologist should use a standardized lexicon and provide a score along with details about the specific compartments affected by endometriosis disease. This helps in offering clearer guidance to the surgeon. KEY POINTS: • An optimal staging is based on the combination of clinical examination, transvaginal US, and MRI. • MRI is able to detect location that is hidden at the beginning of a laparoscopic surgery and thus the need for dedicated MR classifications to correctly stage the disease. • Deep pelvic endometriosis index (dPEI) classification is externally validated and highly correlated with operating time, hospital stay, and postoperative complications.

Role of Word Formation in the Development of Lexicon of Pakistani English

Pakistani English is a non-native variety of English that emerged by the amalgam of British Standard English and native languages of Pakistan. It is one of the varieties of World Englishes that is globally recognized. It has its own morphology, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. It includes vocabulary and linguistic elements of local Languages with cultural norms, values, and tradition of Pakistani society. This paper explores the role of word formation in the development of the lexicon of Pakistani English. It provides insights into the processes such as compounding, affixation, loan translation, hybridization, and conversion by which words emerge and integrate into the lexicon of Pakistani English. It also investigates sociolinguistics factors such as culture, register of Islam and impact of local languages that contribute to the development of the unique variety of Pakistani English.

Current Status and Emerging Techniques for Measuring the Dielectric Properties of Biological Tissues

Abstract The dielectric properties of biological tissues are key parameters that support the design and usability of a wide range of electromagnetic-based medical applications, including for diagnostics and therapeutics, and allow the determination of safety and health effects due to exposure to electromagnetic fields. While an extensive body of literature exists that reports on values of these properties for different tissue types under different measurement conditions, it is now evident that there are large uncertainties and inconsistencies between measurement reports. Due to varying measurement techniques, limited measurement validation strategies, and lack of metadata reporting and confounder control, reported dielectric properties suffer from a lack of repeatability and questionable accuracy. Recently, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Thermal Medicine Standards Committee was formed, which included a Tissue Properties working group. This effort aims to support the translation and commercialization of medical technologies, through the development of a standard lexicon and standard measurement protocols. In this work, we present initial results from the Electromagnetic Tissue Properties subgroup. Specifically, this paper reports a critical gap analysis facing the standardization pathway for the dielectric measurement of biological tissues. All established measurement techniques are examined and compared, and emerging ones are assessed. Perspectives on the importance and challenges in measurement validation, accuracy calculation, metadata collection, and reporting are also discussed.

Development of a standardized consensus lexicon for terms related to micronutrient programs.

Inconsistent use of terminology among diverse stakeholders hinders effective communication in micronutrient programs, especially large-scale food fortification (LSFF) which involves stakeholders from different sectors. To align the terminology use, the Micronutrient Data Innovation Alliance (DInA) of the Micronutrient Forum (MNF) created a lexicon of terms related to LSFF and other micronutrient programs. The purpose of this lexicon is to establish a central repository of consensus definitions of key terms to facilitate communication among diverse stakeholders involved in micronutrient programs including public and private sectors, donor agencies, food industries, academic institutions, etc. This paper describes the methodology of lexicon development. Important terms related to micronutrient programs were compiled from multiple sources, including United Nations agencies, program implementation and technical support agencies, relevant websites, and scientific literature. The selection of terms was guided by key micronutrient interventions (fortification, supplementation, dietary diversification) and the program cycle (assessment, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation). Definitions of terms were identified from these references and checked for consistency across different sources. For terms with multiple definitions, a modified Delphi method was applied to harmonize the definitions. The first draft lexicon (n = 113 terms) was reviewed by six experts from the University of California, Davis (UCD) and MNF, and second draft (n = 115 terms) was shared with 24 global micronutrient experts for feedback. Fifty-four terms were found to have multiple definitions. Of which, minor modification was made for 12-terms with nominal difference and remaining 42-terms were shared with over 140 micronutrient-experts disseminated via an online survey through newsletters and emails to solicit experts' opinions on the most appropriate definition or a modified one. Nineteen legal terms and 83 micronutrient terms (n = 102 terms) were subsequently added. Overall, 39 experts from diverse areas of expertise (LSFF, micronutrient program planning and implementation, surveys and research, policy development, food industry regulations, food safety, and public health nutrition) participated in the online survey. The terms with >75% agreement among experts were considered as final, while the remaining were reviewed again by experts from UCD and MNF until consensus was reached on harmonized definitions. The current lexicon is available online at the DInA-website. and contains 217 terms and will be maintained as a "living document". The lexicon will facilitate the ability of key stakeholders of micronutrient programs to evaluate and compare program performance in order to make informed decisions on how to ensure future progress in reducing micronutrient deficiencies.

Gendered Disinformation of Female Politicians on Social Media in Kenya: A Case of Migori Republican Council Facebook Page

The increase in information communication technologies (ICTs) has undoubtedly facilitated socio-economic and political progress, granting individuals a platform for expression and engagement. However, this increased connectivity has also given rise to disturbing phenomena such as stalking, abuse, intimidation, and humiliation. While the internet has provided a space for both men and women to voice their opinions, gendered disinformation on social media poses a significant threat to women’s rights across various domains, including politics, social interactions, and psychological well-being. Migori Republican Council (MRC) is the largest Facebook page that provides a forum for debates on the Migori County’s political, social and economic issues. Through a case study and analysis of content of the Facebook page collected through web scraping using rapid miner during the political campaigns for the Kenya’s 2022 General elections in the period spanning January to July 2022.The study revealed a landscape dominated by political debates and campaigns for both male and female politicians. However, campaigns targeting female politicians were marred by gendered slurs, focusing on their physical appearance, marital status, and roles as mothers. This form of gendered disinformation undermines women’s credibility and perpetuates harmful stereotypes, hindering their political participation and representation. To address the negative impact of gendered disinformation, the study advocates for public awareness campaigns to sensitize individuals, bloggers, and Facebook page administrators about the risks associated with harmful content on social media. Additionally, administrators should prioritize the formulation and enforcement of community guidelines that uphold human dignity and prohibit gender-based harassment. Gender training programs for bloggers and the public are essential to empower individuals to recognize and combat gendered disinformation effectively. The bloggers, Facebook administrators and the public should be equipped with digital media and information literacy competencies. Furthermore, the study recommends the development of lexicons for local languages spoken in Migori County to facilitate the identification and elimination of gendered disinformation. This localized approach acknowledges the cultural context and linguistic nuances inherent in combating online disinformation and ensures broader inclusivity in addressing gender-based issues on social media platforms.

Sentiment Classification of Community towards COVID-19 Issues on Twitter (Case Study: Indonesia, March-May 2020)

This study examines sentiment analysis related to COVID-19 in Indonesia (March-May 2020) using InSet Lexicon as training data in supervised machine learning models. The dataset comprises 7,967 tweets, divided into 90% training data and 10% testing data. The results reveal that Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF) are the most effective methods, achieving accuracy above 80%, with SVM reaching 87% and RF at 86%. InSet Lexicon itself attains an accuracy of 75%, a macro average of 69%, and a weighted average of 74%, making it an effective alternative for large-scale data labeling. Research recommendations support further development of InSet Lexicon for sentiment classification and expansion of the lexicon for foreign languages to enhance sentiment analysis accuracy in a global context. This study provides valuable insights into understanding public sentiment regarding crucial issues such as COVID-19 in Indonesia.

The Development of ESP Lexicon Through New Combining Forms

This paper investigates the role of new combining forms in the formation of neologisms which are currently expanding the lexicon of English for Special Purposes (ESP). In the past, only neoclassical combining forms, such as initial bio- or final -logy (in biology), were productively used in ESP. Nowadays, specialized combining forms also include abbreviated forms of existing words (e.g., cyber- from cybernetic in cyber-attack), as well as secreted (i.e. reinterpreted) forms (e.g., -bot from robot denoting &amp;lsquo;a type of automated program or software&amp;rsquo; in knowbot). The paper explores a set of combining forms attested since the second half of last century in the online version of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) with the aim to demonstrate how specialized sectors, such as science or information technology, are being enriched by series of combining-form combinations. The paper conducts quantitative analyses in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and the News on the Web Corpus (NOW) to substantiate the frequency and stability of specialized combining forms and their profitability in the formation of both novel and nonce words.

Development of Emotion Lexicons to Describe Sugar-Free Chocolate According to Consumers’ PROP Taster Status

Taste sensitivity can have a significant impact on consumers’ food choices. Consumers’ taster status and emotions can be guided by sensory information of sugared products. This paper aimed to develop emotional lexicons for sugar-free chocolates based on consumers’ taster status applying the check-all-that-apply (CATA) methodology. South African respondents’ (n = 153) bitter perception was evaluated with n-propylthiouracil (PROP) paper strips. Respondents received one sugar-free dark chocolate and one sugar-free milk chocolate and completed an electronic questionnaire. Respondents mainly purchased chocolate for its flavour, and enjoyed the taste of the sugar-free dark chocolate more than sugar-free milk chocolate. The non-tasters (&gt;50%) chose positive emotions for sugar-free milk chocolate, while the medium tasters, selected more positive emotions for dark chocolate. The supertasters selected the most negative emotions for the sugar-free dark chocolate. Practical significant associations were found between the non-tasters and the emotion guilty, as well as between the supertasters and the emotions, discontented and disgust. Each taster status requires the development of a distinctive lexicon to be emotionally satisfied by sugar-free products.

The development and preliminary validation of the Serbian value lexicon – An archival approach to value measurement

Values refer to stable beliefs and principles held by individuals, which guide their attitudes, behaviours, and judgments, and play a crucial role in shaping their identities and interactions with others. Studying values in social psychology is important as it provides insights into the motivational forces that drive individuals’ behaviour and decision-making, shaping the dynamics of interpersonal relationships and societal interactions. The aim of this paper is to test the possibility of measuring basic values in the archive and text materials. Based on the Schwartz’s theory of values and earlier work on the value lexicon in English, the Serbian lexicon of values was developed and preliminarily validated on a large-scale Internet-based survey. The lexical co-occurrence of words in the natural language use on the Internet was analysed in order to assess the convergent, discriminant and predictive validity of the lexicon. Lexical co-occurrence analysis showed that the words representing the same values co-occurred significantly more in comparison to the words denoting different values. The pattern of correlations between the values measured in the archive material on the Internet using the value lexicon showed high convergence with the pattern of correlations between the values assessed by the self-reported measures used in the European Social Survey in 2018. The relative prominence of the specific values on the official websites of the exemplar societal institutions and organizations identified by the value lexicon was in line with the expectations and preliminarily confirmed the criterion validity of the lexicon of values. Possible applications of the lexicon of values, as well as some methodological issues pertaining to its future use, are discussed in the final part.

A comparative analysis of morphosyntactic features of Nigerian English and Ghanaian English

This study analyses aspects of lexis and morpho-syntax of Nigerian English and Ghanaian English. It also compares the data from the International Corpus of English (ICE), Nigeria and Ghana components respectively, that are used in the same or similar way in the two varieties. A total of fifty-three lexical items are analysed in this study. All the data were drawn from ICE Nigeria and Ghana respectively. Corpus linguistics was used as a method of data analysis. The AntConc software was used to authenticate the data that are present in both corpora. This study adopts an eclectic approach of Structural Semantics, alongside the theory of Contrastive Analysis (CA), using Bamiro’s tools of lexico-semantic variation for the categorization of the data. The study also uses ideas from Jowitt for this morphosyntactic analysis. The study found out among other things that, some irregular plurals are made regular in NE and GhE (+,-) for example, “…look for qualified staffs…”, “…top officials and other staffs who…” respectively. Also, uncountable nouns are frequently made countable and used in the plural: “advice, agenda, jewelry, offspring, property, machinery” in both varieties (+,-): “…we’ll uphold your advices…” and “…selfish agendas…”. This work has identified some NE and GhE morphosyntactic features/usages from ICE Nigeria and Ghana which have not been mentioned in existing works in NE and GhE. The study has further provided raw materials for researchers interested in the study of these two varieties and also West African English and is of immense importance to the development of NE and GhE lexicon. The study concludes that NE and GhE are separate varieties and have quite a number of distinctive features in common. These two varieties are not errors or deviations.