Development Of General Principles Research Articles

The problem of applying reservations to international human rights agreements

A problem statement. Human rights law, as a branch of public international law, to date, is mainly codified and consists mainly of treaty rules contained in universal and regional conventions. At the same time, in most cases, the parties to these agreements make reservations of both a substantive and procedural nature that apply to all generations of human rights. The question arises as to the legitimacy of the reservations declared by states to international acts on human rights and freedoms. Аnalysis of research and publications. Many international lawyers deal with the issue of reservations to human rights treaties and their validity. Thus, the works of E.S. Alisievich, are devoted to this issue, I.I. Lukashuk, V.G. Butkevich, V.L. Tolstoy, M.V. Buromensky and others. However, there are a number of problems with the legal regime of reservations to human rights treaties. The main thesis that reveals their essence is that there is no mechanism for effective control over the legitimacy of such reservations. The main text. The article considers the concept of reservations to international treaties, examines the problem of issuing reservations to international human rights treaties. The application of the institution of reservations is studied on the example of certain international treaties in the field of human rights, such as: the European Convention on Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. The case law of the European Court of Human Rights on the application of reservations to the European Convention on Human Rights is studied. Conclusions. Today, the sovereign right of every state to stipulate international treaties is firmly established in international law, but there is no clear legal regulation of this institution that would prevent abuses by states in this area. We see the need to further study the institution of reservations to human rights treaties, its development and the development of general principles, procedures, and control over their legitimacy.

New strategies for bacterial contaminations

BackgroundThe detection of bacterial contaminations in blood components can be classified in culture methods, rapid detection methods and experimental new technologies.Culture methodsCulture methods have shown their benefit through easy handling and high analytic sensitivity. The challenge with culture methods, with the negative‐to‐date release concept, is a risk for false negative screening results due to sample failures and a reduced clinical efficiency.Rapid detection methodsWithin the last decade, rapid bacterial detection systems (RBDS) were developed as an alternative option to culture systems. In RBDS, testing time is reduced to 2–3 h. Therefore, a negative‐to‐date release concept is not necessary using these systems.New technologiesIn addition, new technologies are currently in development to detect bacterial strains in blood components. Electrochemical biosensors were developed for many different analytes, which range in size from individual ions and small molecules to nucleic acids and proteins up to whole viruses and bacteria.ConclusionsBacterial detection in blood components, especially in platelets, is implemented in many blood donor services. New approaches are promising to come to a next level to be implemented into routine screening, but the analytical sensitivity has to be improved for some of the new test systems in the coming years. Due to the fact that a risk for bacterial contamination still occurs in all blood components, the focus in transfusion medicine in the next decade will be the development of general principles and strategies to detect or inactivate bacteria in all blood components. Therefore, new developments are gladly welcome.

Development of general principles for optimal control of caterpillar machine movement

Development of general principles for optimal control of caterpillar machine movement

The Inter-University Case Program Challenging Orthodoxy, Training Public Servants, Creating Knowledge

The list of individuals who participated in the Inter-University Case Program (ICP) reads like a who’s who list of public administration titans. In one form or another, scholar-practitioners like Dwight Waldo, Paul Appleby, Harold Stein, and Frederick C. Mosher played a part in the success of the program. This article examines the ICP with an epistemological eye. The era of the ICP was a period when scholars thought that the complexity of government prevented the development of general administrative principles and also prevented the use of conventional scientific methods to generate knowledge in the field. They believed instead that the strength of the ICP case studies was in their detail. Instead of presenting an idealized world of public organizations, the cases left the blemishes intact and presented a more realistic view of government: a government that was heavily political and, at times, even irrational. The goal of the cases was to teach decision-making skills, though generalization and theory development were important but subordinate objectives. Generalization of knowledge from the case studies was a difficult, but not impossible, task. The development of general principles was not possible, but, without disregarding context, the case studies allowed scholars to observe general tendencies at work in public organizations. Today, as public administration has once again found its theories to be challenged by a changing world, the case study remains an important tool for linking theory in the sphere of academia and practice in the real world of administration.

Standardization of the Traditional Herbal Mixtures Marbo-3 and Sorool-4

The flora of Mongolia includes about 2823 species of plants belonging to 662 genuses and 128 families. About 300 species constitute the group of medicinal plants. There are approximately 40 large and small pharmaceutical enterprises in Mongolia, which produce about 270 traditional preparations for the domestic market. The annual export of medicinals amounts to 4.8 – 5.2 ton [1]. It is planned that the consumption of the traditional Mongolian preparations and, hence, their production will continue to grow. Unfortunately, the lack of systematic basic investigations devoted to standardization of traditional drugs and to the development of methods for their identification and analysis hinders objective evaluation of the quality of traditional drugs produced in Mongolia and restricts the export. This study was aimed at the complex investigation of the widely used traditional plant preparations Marbo-3 and Sorool-4 by modern physicochemical analytical techniques, evaluation of the content of heavy metals in these preparations, and characterization of the microbiological cleanness of both mixtures and raw plant materials entering into these compositions. This investigation was performed with a view to the development of general principles for the standardization of traditional medicinal plant preparations used in the folk medicine of Mongolia [2]. The herbal mixture Marbo-3 is widely used in Mongolia, Tibetia, India, and China for the treatment of various renal and urinary disorders [3 – 5]. This mixture includes equal proportions of the roots and rhizomes of Indian madder (Rubia cordifolia of Rubiaceae family), the leaves of Japan medlar (Eriobotria japonica of Rosaceae family), and shellac (Laccifer Lacca of Coccideae family). In the first step, we have studied the anatomic structure of the roots and rhizomes of Rubia cordifolia and the leaves of Eriobotria japonica and established their identification characters (Fig. 1). The results of microscopic examination of Marbo-3 obtained from various manufacturers reveal the parenchymal cells of Indian madder and long simple hairs of the upper and lower epiderm cells of the leaves of Japan medlar.

Can comparative approaches based on plant ecophysiological traits predict the nature of biotic interactions and individual plant species effects in ecosystems?

1 The development of general principles regarding biotic interactions involving plants, or plant species effects in ecosystems, is best achieved through simultaneous evaluation of several species. We utilized a comparative approach involving 20 dicotyledonous herbaceous species, to explore possible relationships between several plant ecophysiological traits and plant litter decomposition, interactions involving competition and herbivory, and plant species effects on soil properties. 2 Decomposition rates of plant stem and leaf litter were negatively related to plant mass, time until flowering and vegetative growth rate, and positively related to stem nitrogen content. Root decomposition was also related to several traits. Multiple regression relationships showed that 74% and 84% of the variation across species for stem and root litter decomposition, respectively, could be predicted by plant traits; this suggests that plant traits may be powerful predictors of decomposition and have potential as alternative predictors to the litter quality characteristics that previous studies have concentrated on. 3 Palatability of both seedlings and leaf discs by the invertebrate herbivores Deroceras reticulatum and Listronotus bonariensis were frequently related to plant traits. Those traits that showed the strongest relationships with the palatability data included various vegetative growth characteristics and (for the leaf disc data) nitrogen concentrations of flowering plant stems. 4 Competitive effects of the dicotyledonous species against a phytometer species, the grass Lolium perenne, were negatively related to leaf nitrogen concentration, and multiple regression relationships involving this trait in combination with others explained over 50% of the variation across species. The competitive response of both plant mass and total seed production to L. perenne was poorly related to plant traits. 5 The effects of plant species on soil properties including microbial biomass and activity, pH, nitrate concentration and total nitrogen were often closely related to various plant traits. Multiple regression relationships revealed that combinations of several traits were often important in determining these effects; the strongest relationships found were for effects of senescent plants on soil respiration and for the effects of flowering plants on soil nitrate. Plant traits were therefore clearly important in determining plant species effects on soils. 6 Our study emphasizes the importance of plant traits in understanding (and predicting) species interactions and effects in communities and ecosystems, and shows that properties considered at the whole plant level have the potential to manifest themselves over much larger scales. We therefore conclude that there are clear linkages between plant ecophysiological traits, biotic interactions involving plants, and ecosystem level properties and processes.

Archival Theory Redux and Redeemed: Definition and Context Toward a General Theory

Recent critics have argued that archival work is inherently too simplistic for theoretical discussion. Careful definition of terms and systematic analysis of historical development demonstrates that archivists can benefit from the conscious development of general principles to explain and analyze in ways that solve problems and redress past mistakes. Archives is a metadiscipline in an applied context, whose theory embraces elements from the humanities, science, and organizational theory. The author proposes a general theory or mission statement for archivists that balances their administrative responsibilities with their duty to insure the development of a documentary heritage.

Production Rules for General Database Users

Production rules are suggested and developed as a standard notation for the general database users. They are shown to be appropriate for a variety of data models and a variety of database activities. A production based data language (PDL) is introduced and recommended as a standard notation for several data models and many database activities. The expressiveness of the language is demonstrated through examples spanning a wide range of activities. The advantages of a single standard notation are argued to be the minimization of user effort in learning notations, the elimination of the need for conversion from one language to another whenever multiple models or activities are involved, the development of general principles cutting across data models and activities, and the transfer of knowledge and insight developed in one context to other environments. Experience with production rules as an end-user development tool is reported.

The Sloan Report: American Culture and Business Management

Students of American culture are generally agreed on the preference shown for pragmatic experimental action without much advance theorizing. The evolution of modern business management is a good example of the working of this trait, with the ironic twist that the systems established by practical executives then became the basis for business school theorizing. As a result, by 1950 the pragmatic United States was the leading source of literature and expertise on problems of management. Perhaps this process is the way by which much practical knowledge gains acceptance, and, therefore, it is interesting to see how the measures adopted to meet difficult day to day problems in human relations led to the subsequent development of general principles. Clear lines of authority, the use of specialized advice, and delegation of authority had always been recognized as basic principles of good bureaucratic management. The American contribution was to show by practical example how these aims might be achieved in highly complex business structures. In the late nineteenth century industrial companies in many nations grew from medium-sized enterprises, employing one or two hundred workers at a single location, into large corporations with thousands of men working in numerous branches and perhaps a head office remote from any of the operations. This was particularly the case in the United States where the geographical spread of the continental market raised the costs of distribution and gave an advantage to supply from more than one location. With just a few exceptions, technological advantages could generally be maximized in a moderate sized plant, in which problems connected with both labor and management were on a rather simple and

The Australian Constitution 1951–1976

The Commonwealth of Australia is 75 years old. Professor Zines, in this Article, looks at the record of judicial review of the Constitution over the past quarter century. He examines those areas (a) that have, during that time, illustrated, or provided the basis for, the development of general principles; (b) that seem to have particular political or social significance; or (c) that help in understanding the role and technique of the High Court.

Transfer function analysis of an oscillatory model chemical system.

Abstract Oscillation occurring in the time course of a particular model reaction system is examined, utilizing the transfer function method of analysis developed in a previous paper. System properties predicted by the analytic technique correspond with those observed in analog computer solutions of the kinetic equations describing the system. The transfer function approach provides kinetic criteria for the existence of oscillation in terms of loop gain and phase shift, and elucidates the relation between oscillation and bistability, or flip-flop behavior. Although formulated to be biologically feasible, the model oscillating system is purely hypothetical, and is presented primarily as a basis for the development of general principles concerning periodicity and instability in complex reaction systems.

The Study of International Politics: A Survey of Trends and Developments

The question was raised at the end of World War II as to whether or not international relations could stand as a separate field of study. Views were expressed by scholars and teachers in history and political science to the effect that in substance there was nothing peculiar to the subject matter of international relations which did not fall under other separate fields of social studies. At some universities and colleges there were dissenters to this prevailing viewpoint. Their particular philosophy manifested itself in attempts to create and establish integrated curricula under academic committees or departments dedicated to the broad generalized study of die subject matter of the field. It is still too early to pass judgment with any finality on the merits of these two points of view, the one viewing international relations as a mere duplication of the subject matter of many fields; the odier insisting that diere must be an ordering and integrative approach to die field. No serious student would presume to claim that die study of international relations had arrived at die stage of an independent academic discipline. However, there have been three significant developments within no more than a single generation which illuminate certain aspects of this problem. First we have witnessed the evolution and development of a point of focus or core in the field. Secondly, diere have been die first faint and feeble beginnings of attempts to create a mediodology appropriate for the field, or at least to determine those related mediodologies in the social sciences whose methods and techniques could most usefully be appropriated for the study of persistent international issues. Thirdly, inventories have been drawn up by individual scholars, universities and institutes, of topics and concrete projects which would best serve in the development of general principles in the field and the validation of them dirough systematic inquiry.