Development Of Executive Functions Research Articles

Exploring early life social and executive function development in infants and risk for autism: a prospective cohort study protocol of NICU graduates and infants at risk for cerebral palsy

BackgroundDelays in early social and executive function are predictive of later developmental delays and eventual neurodevelopmental diagnoses. There is limited research examining such markers in the first year of life. High-risk infant groups commonly present with a range of neurodevelopmental challenges, including social and executive function delays, and show higher rates of autism diagnoses later in life. For example, it has been estimated that up to 30% of infants diagnosed with cerebral palsy (CP) will go on to be diagnosed with autism later in life.MethodsThis article presents a protocol of a prospective longitudinal study. The primary aim of this study is to identify early life markers of delay in social and executive function in high-risk infants at the earliest point in time, and to explore how these markers may relate to the increased risk for social and executive delay, and risk of autism, later in life. High-risk infants will include Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) graduates, who are most commonly admitted for premature birth and/or cardiovascular problems. In addition, we will include infants with, or at risk for, CP. This prospective study will recruit 100 high-risk infants at the age of 3–12 months old and will track social and executive function across the first 2 years of their life, when infants are 3–7, 8–12, 18 and 24 months old. A multi-modal approach will be adopted by tracking the early development of social and executive function using behavioural, neurobiological, and caregiver-reported everyday functioning markers. Data will be analysed to assess the relationship between the early markers, measured from as early as 3–7 months of age, and the social and executive function as well as the autism outcomes measured at 24 months.DiscussionThis study has the potential to promote the earliest detection and intervention opportunities for social and executive function difficulties as well as risk for autism in NICU graduates and/or infants with, or at risk for, CP. The findings of this study will also expand our understanding of the early emergence of autism across a wider range of at-risk groups.

Profiles of executive functions in middle childhood and prediction of later self-regulation

Most research on the development of executive functions (EF) has applied variable-oriented approaches, neglecting the potential inter- and intraindividual interplay of these capacities. In a person-oriented approach, the present study identified varying profiles of performance for three cool EF facets: inhibition, working-memory updating, and cognitive flexibility, as well as two hot EF facets: affective decision-making and delay of gratification, in a community sample of 1,657 children (T1; age: 6–11 years, M = 8.36 years, 52.1% female) via latent profile analysis. The best-fitting model allowed for partial dependence across the three cool EF and included four profiles: all-average (69.4% of the children), low-delay (19.0%), regulated-decision-making (7.0%), and low-inhibition (4.6%). Age, binary sex, socio-economic status, multilingualism, and processing speed were identified as significant characteristics of EF profile membership. Longitudinally, a higher probability of belonging to the low-inhibition profile predicted lower rates of the self-regulatory outcome of inhibitory control 1 year later, while belonging to the regulated-decision-making profile predicted lower rates of the ability to plan and organize 3 years later. These results not only demonstrate the existence of subgroups with different concurrent within-person expressions of EF performance, but also identify related characteristics and longitudinal outcomes of subgroup membership. In turn, these conclusions stress the importance of person-oriented research to inform on differing weaknesses or strengths in EF performance for varying individuals, thereby providing valuable insight for educational and clinical research into the design of effective personalized support or interventions during middle childhood.

Addressing cortex dysregulation in youth through brain health check coaching and prophylactic brain development

The Carter Center has estimated that the addiction crisis in the United States (US), if continues to worsen at the same rate, may cost the country approximately 16 trillion dollars by 2030. In recent years, the well-being of youth has been compromised by not only the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic but also the alarming global opioid crisis, particularly in the US. Each year, deadly opioid drugs claim hundreds of thousands of lives, contributing to an ever-rising death toll. In addition, maternal usage of opioids and other drugs during pregnancy could compromise the neurodevelopment of children. A high rate of DNA polymorphic antecedents compounds the occurrence of epigenetic insults involving methylation of specific essential genes related to normal brain function. These genetic antecedent insults affect healthy DNA and mRNA transcription, leading to a loss of proteins required for normal brain development and function in youth. Myelination in the frontal cortex, a process known to extend until the late 20s, delays the development of proficient executive function and decision-making abilities. Understanding this delay in brain development, along with the presence of potential high-risk antecedent polymorphic variants or alleles and generational epigenetics, provides a clear rationale for embracing the Brain Research Commission’s suggestion to mimic fitness programs with an adaptable brain health check (BHC). Implementing the BHC within the educational systems in the US and other countries could serve as an effective initiative for proactive therapies aimed at reducing juvenile mental health problems and eventually criminal activities, addiction, and other behaviors associated with reward deficiency syndrome.

Attentional development is altered in toddlers with congenital heart disease

AbstractBackgroundCongenital Heart Disease (CHD) is the most common congenital abnormality. Survival rates are over 90%, however infants with CHD remain at high risk of attention and executive function impairments. These abilities are difficult to assess in toddlers because clinical assessments rely on language abilities which are commonly delayed in CHD. Our aim was to characterise visual attention in toddlers with CHD compared to controls and identify associations with parent‐rated effortful control.MethodsThirty toddlers with CHD (19 male, median (IQR) age at assessment 22.2 (22–23.1) months) and 66 controls from the developing human connectome project (36 male, age at assessment 22 (21.5–23.8) months) using eye‐tracking tasks designed to assess multiple components of visual attention. Analyses of co‐variance and regressions were used to identify differences between groups and relationships between gaze behaviours and parent‐rated effortful control.ResultsToddlers with CHD were less accurate when switching behaviours (set‐shifting) [median (IQR) 79%, (28–100)] compared to controls [100% (86–100), pFDR = 0.032], with worse accuracy associated with lower parent‐rated effortful control in CHD but not controls (interaction pFDR = 0.028). Reaction times were slower during selective [CHD 1243 ms (986–1786), controls 1065 ms (0851–1397), pFDR<0.001] and exogenous attention tasks [CHD 312 ms (279–358), control 289 (249–331), (pFDR = 0.032) and endogenous attention was less mature (prolonged looks at facial stimuli CHD 670 ms (518–885), control 500 ms (250–625), (pFDR = 0.006). These results were unrelated to differences in cognition or socioeconomic status. In contrast, the allocation of attentional resources was preserved in CHD.ConclusionsWe identified a profile of altered attention and early executive functioning development in CHD. Eye‐tracking may provide clinically feasible, early objective measures of attention and executive function development in CHD.

The relationships between motor skills and executive functions in children with and without autism spectrum disorder.

To date, information on associations between motor skills and executive functions (EF) in autistic children is limited. The purpose of this study was to compare motor skills and EF performance between autistic children and typically developing (TD) children and to examine the relationships between motor skills and EF in these two groups. Forty-eight autistic children and 48 TD children aged 6 to 12 years were recruited for this study. Motor skills were measured with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2). EF was assessed with the Stroop Color and Word Test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), and the Test of Attentional Performance: Go/No-go test. Independent sample t-tests were used to compare the BOT-2 scores and EF measures between autistic children and TD children. Pearson product-moment correlation and regressions were conducted to assess the relationships between the BOT-2 scores and the EF measures for each group. Results showed that autistic children scored significantly lower than TD children on all four BOT-2 composite scores and a total motor composite. Autistic children also demonstrated significantly lower levels of performance on all EF measures than TD children. Further, autistic children showed more significant associations between motor skills and EF than TD children, particularly pronounced in the domains of fine manual control and manual coordination to cognitive flexibility, as well as manual coordination and inhibitory control. Continued development of motor skills and EF in autistic children is important. The relationships between motor skills and EF were significant among autistic children, suggesting future research on promoting EF through motor skill interventions in autistic children is required.

Cognitive enrichment through art: a randomized controlled trial on the effect of music or visual arts group practice on cognitive and brain development of young children

BackgroundThe optimal stimulation for brain development in the early academic years remains unclear. Current research suggests that musical training has a more profound impact on children's executive functions (EF) compared to other art forms. What is crucially lacking is a large-scale, long-term genuine randomized controlled trial (RCT) in cognitive neuroscience, comparing musical instrumental training (MIP) to another art form, and a control group (CG). This study aims to fill this gap by using machine learning to develop a multivariate model that tracks the interconnected brain and EF development during the academic years, with or without music or other art training.MethodsThe study plans to enroll 150 children aged 6-8 years and randomly assign them to three groups: Orchestra in Class (OC), Visual Arts (VA), and a control group (CG). Anticipating a 30% attrition rate, each group aims to retain at least 35 participants. The research consists of three analytical stages: 1) baseline analysis correlating EF, brain data, age, gender, and socioeconomic status, 2) comparison between groups and over time of EF brain and behavioral development and their interactions, including hypothesis testing, and 3) exploratory analysis combining behavioral and brain data. The intervention includes intensive art classes once a week, and incremental home training over two years, with the CG receiving six annual cultural outings.DiscussionThis study examines the potential benefits of intensive group arts education, especially contrasting music with visual arts, on EF development in children. It will investigate how artistic enrichment potentially influences the presumed typical transition from a more unified to a more multifaceted EF structure around age eight, comparing these findings against a minimally enriched active control group. This research could significantly influence the incorporation of intensive art interventions in standard curricula.Trial registrationThe project was accepted after peer-review by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF no. 100014_214977) on March 29, 2023. The study protocol received approval from the Cantonal Commission for Ethics in Human Research of Geneva (CCER, BASEC-ID 2023-01016), which is part of Swiss ethics, on October 25, 2023. The study is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05912270).

Latent Network Analysis of Executive Functions Across Development.

Executive functions (EFs) are crucial for academic achievement, physical health, and mental well-being. Previous studies using structural equation models revealed EFs' developmental organization, evolving from one factor in childhood to three factors in adults: inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and updating. Recent network model studies confirmed this differentiation from childhood to adulthood. Reanalyzing previously published data from 1019 children (aged 7.8 to 15.3; 50.4% female; 59.1% White, 15.0% Latinx, 14.3% Bi-racial, 6.7% African American, 4.2% Asian American, 0.6% Other), this study compared three analytical methods to explore EF development: structural equation model, network model, and the novel latent variable network model. All approaches supported fine-grained EF-specific trajectories and differentiation throughout development, with inhibition being central in childhood and updating in early adolescence.

The association between music training and executive function in 6–7-year-old children

Executive function development is especially important in the last year of the preschool period because this period precedes the transition to school. Therefore, it is relevant to study extracurricular activities that can positively impact the development of executive function in 6–7-year-old children. According to earlier research, executive function development might be positively influenced by music training. The current cross-sectional study aimed to explore differences in executive function among 6–7-year-old preschoolers depending on participation in music training. In the current research, children were divided into two groups of 37 participants each: children who received music training for at least half a year and children who did not receive music training. Children in both groups did not participate in dance training because music is also actively used during dance training. Background variables such as participation in extracurricular activities, screen time, family singing activities, maternal education, and family income level did not differ between the groups. The study revealed that the children who received music training had a higher level of motor inhibitory control compared to the children who did not receive music or dance training. This study offers further support for the association between executive function and music training in preschoolers.

Importance of cultural context in the study of children's executive functions: Advances in Latin America research

AbstractAlthough executive functions (EFs) have been identified as a cornerstone of cognitive development, knowledge of this fundamental ability in children is based primarily on research with North American and Western European samples of middle to high socioeconomic status (SES). In this article, we highlight advances in research on developmental EFs from Latin American regions, an understudied area that provides a unique context important to understanding EFs. Our narrative review suggests the potential for both universality (e.g., increasing cohesion and longitudinal stability among EFs' task performance, general positive associations with age, and other social and cognitive abilities) and cultural specificity in EF development (i.e., contributions of SES, educational environments, parenting styles, and cultural values). It is important to consider the development of EFs outside of typically examined samples—and specifically within Latin American countries—to understand more thoroughly these abilities and to generate interventions that consider cultural context.

A Longitudinal Study of the Development of Executive Function and Calibration Accuracy.

This longitudinal study examined the development of executive function and calibration accuracy in preadolescents. This study's sample consisted of 262 students (127 females) from grades 4 (n = 91), 5 (n = 89), and 6 (n = 82) who took measures of executive function and performance calibration in a sport task three times over 20 months. A latent growth-curve modeling analysis showed a significant relationship between the rates of change of executive function and calibration accuracy. The results also showed a dynamic interplay in the development of executive function and calibration accuracy. There were significant interindividual differences in the estimated population means both in executive function and calibration accuracy and in the rate of change of executive function, but not in the rate of change of calibration accuracy. The age of the participants had a positive effect only on the estimated population mean of executive function.

Decolonizing and Diversifying Research in Cognitive Development

ABSTRACT This article serves as an introduction to the Special Issue on “Decolonizing and Diversifying Research in Cognitive Development.” The Special Issue comprises six articles: two articles are empirical articles that focus on executive function development in under-represented environments, two articles address barriers pathways toward behavioral change in advancing toward diversification and decolonization; and two articles focus on reconciling sampling and reporting practices with the scientific goal of generalizability. Though different lenses, each article identifies important practices and considerations for broadening the study of cognitive development to faithfully represent children’s diverse environments and trajectories via developing methods and practices in situ and sampling judiciously across diverse settings. The series culminates in a commentary via Bard and Keller, who discuss each article and articulate future pathways toward decolonization and diversification.

The relation between teacher–student interaction and executive function performance in children: A cross-cultural meta-analysis

Executive function (EF) is critical to students’ academic behaviors and well-being. Environmental influences, particularly teacher-student interaction (TSI), play a key role in enhancing EF development. Previous studies have linked TSI quality to children’s EF, yet the relationships between subdimensions of TSI—such as closeness, conflict, dependency, emotional support, classroom management, and instructional support—and EF outcomes remain unclear. Moreover, it is unclear whether these relations hold true across different cultural contexts. From an initial pool of 14,915 articles, in this meta-analysis, we considered 84 empirical studies across 18 cultural regions, revealing that TSI subdimensions are consistently related to EF with small-to-medium effect sizes. The analysis also identified statistically significant moderating factors, such as individualism, power distance, EF type, EF instrument, and socioeconomic status. Notably, stronger TSI-EF correlations were found among children from cultures with low-individualism and high-power-distance, as well as among children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. These patterns were particularly pronounced in studies measuring hot EF through adult-reported data. This comprehensive meta-analysis bridges knowledge gaps in TSI-EF dynamics, and supporting theories, such as attachment theory, social learning theory, and socio-cultural theory within educational settings. Crucially, it provides cross-cultural perspectives showing how cultural and contextual factors may intertwine with TSI-EF interactions.

Growing through adversity: the relation of early childhood educator post-traumatic growth to young children's executive function.

Early childhood educators (ECEs) play a critical role in supporting the development of young children's executive functions (EF). EF, in turn, underpins lifelong resilience and well-being. Unfortunately, many ECEs report adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) that may compound high stress levels associated with an emotionally and physically demanding profession. ACEs have well-established negative implications for adult well-being and may dampen ECEs' capacities to engage in emotionally responsive interactions with children. However, many individuals who experience ACEs also report post-traumatic growth experiences that foster empathy, self-determination, and resilience. Such post-traumatic growth may equip teachers with skills to engage in responsive interactions with children that support children's EF. The aim of this study was to explore the relations of ECE ACEs and post-traumatic growth to the EF of children in their classrooms. Fifty-three female ECEs self-reported on their ACEs and post-traumatic growth. Parents of 157 children (53% male, 47% female, M age = 4.38 years) rated children's EF. In a set of linear mixed models that accounted for multiple demographic factors and ECE perceived workplace stressors, ECE ACEs were not significantly related to children's EF scores. However, controlling for ACEs, higher levels of ECE post-traumatic growth were associated with fewer parent-reported EF difficulties in children. ECEs may draw on the coping skills they have developed in times of adversity to model and promote healthy EF for children. Mental health supports to facilitate ECEs' processing of their own trauma may be a fruitful means to foster positive early childhood environments that nurture the well-being and resilience of future generations.

Bidirectional relationships between emotion understanding and executive functions in young children: A latent change score modeling study

An overarching framework in the field of developmental psychology highlights the close linkage of cognition with emotion; however, the extent to which this framework supports the relationship between executive functions and emotion understanding in young children remains unclear. Hence, we employ a longitudinal tracking study to investigate the bidirectional relationship between emotion understanding and executive functions. A total of 112 children ( M = 48.01 months, 68 boys) were recruited to perform tests at three time points within 2 years. Results from our cross-lagged model analysis indicated that early executive functions significantly predicted the development of emotion understanding at Time 2 and Time 3, while emotion understanding at Time 2 significantly predicted the subsequent development of executive functions in Time 3, controlling for age, gender, and family socioeconomic status (SES). Moreover, the latent change score model analysis further revealed the developmental trends and interrelations of executive functions and emotion understanding over time. Specifically, children with higher initial level of executive functions exhibited faster growth in emotion understanding over time, and then this improved emotion understanding predicted the changes in later executive functions. Overall, these findings elucidate significant developmental progressions for how emotion understanding and executive functions interact with each other during early childhood.

The influence of pretend play on the cognitive and emotional development of children 3-4 years old

Introduction. Play is the leading activity of preschool age, and play with an imaginary situation (pretend play) is considered as the most significant type of play for children’s mental development, which allows this type of play to be used in the educational process as a means of teaching and developing preschool children. The purpose of this article was to assess the impact of pretend play on the cognitive and emotional development of children 3-4 years old. We assumed that (1) the play can influence the development of executive functions, imagination and understanding of emotions in children 3-4 years old, (2) the influence of the play can be different depending on which developmental mechanisms it contains more involved. Materials and methods. To test the hypotheses, a training controlled experiment design was developed. As an experimental intervention series of play sessions with an adult were conducted. Before and after the experimental intervention, the level of development of executive functions, imagination and understanding of emotions was assessed. 39 children aged 3-4 years took part in the play sessions. Play sessions were video recorded for later analysis. Results. The data obtained were analyzed in two stages. First, the results of the pre- and post-test in the experimental and control groups were compared. At the second stage, the analysis of video recordings was carried out in order to control the influence of the child's ability to stay in the play context. Thus, the test results of the same children before and after participating in the experiment (Student's paired t-test) were compared. Significant differences were identified in the indicator “Understanding the external causes of emotions” of the Test of Emotion Comprehension and the “Elaboration” of the test for imagination. Analysis of variance with control of the level of development of hot self-regulation in children at the time of participation in the experiment confirmed that the type of experimental exposure is a significant factor affecting the development of the ability to understand the external causes of emotions (F(1.36) = 3.87, p = 0.030, n2 = 0.035). Analysis of video recordings showed that children in both playing conditions to a large extent were involved in the playing and, as expected, in their play there was an emphasis on the meanings of human activity, the relationship between the characters and their feelings. The results of the conducted training experiment as a whole showed a low effectiveness of the pretend play impact even in conditions with active participation of the adult. Conclusion. The age of 3-4 years is the initial stage of the formation of both the pretend play itself, and such mental functions as imagination, self-regulation and understanding of emotions. The results of the training experiment generally showed the low effectiveness of the play influence even in conditions of active participation of the experimenter in the play. We can conclude that when planning to use the play for developmental purposes, it is important to take into account the age and individual zone of proximal development available to the child. This will allow to understand what format of pretend play with and what adult’s interventions will be most effective.

Enhancing young children's executive function through physical activities: A three-level meta-analysis

Background and aimsThe cultivation of executive functions during early childhood establishes the fundamental underpinning for advanced cognitive development in adulthood. Presently, there remains a degree of controversy surrounding the empirical findings pertaining to the impact of physical activity on the executive functions of young children. This study aimed at elucidating the potential moderating factors influencing the relationship between physical activity and the executive functions of young children. MethodsIn this study, we have conducted a meta-analysis encompassing twenty-four experimental studies with a total of 1426 participants. The meta-analysis was conducted using Stata version 17.0 and R version 4.3.2 software, with Hedges'g serving as the chosen effect size metric. ResultsThe outcomes of our investigation underscore the salient point that physical activity possesses the capacity to enhance the executive functions of young children. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the developmental impact of physical activity on the executive functions of young children is notably contingent upon the duration of the intervention. The implementation of game-based pedagogical approaches within the realm of sports activities emerges as a particularly potent means to foster the development of executive functions in young children. ConclusionsThis meta-analysis serves to proffer quantitative evidence affirming the positive influence of physical activities on the executive functions of young children during their early developmental years. It carries substantial implications for practical application.

Stability of executive function in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia

ABSTRACT Executive function plays an important role in promoting learning and social-emotional development in children. Neonatal hypoglycemia associates with executive function difficulties at 4.5 years, but little is known about the development of executive function over time in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia. We aimed to describe the stability of executive function from early to mid-childhood in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia and its association with neonatal hypoglycemia. Participants in a prospective cohort study of infants born at risk for neonatal hypoglycemia were assessed at ages 2, 4.5, and 9–10 years. We assessed executive function with batteries of performance-based and questionnaire-based measures, and classified children into one of four stability groups (persistent typical, intermittent typical, intermittent difficulty, and persistent difficulty) based on dichotomized scores (typical versus low at each age). Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the associations between neonatal hypoglycemia and executive function stability groups. Three hundred and nine children, of whom 197 (64%) experienced neonatal hypoglycemia were assessed. The majority of children had stable and typical performance-based (63%) and questionnaire-based (68%) executive function across all three ages. Around one-third (30–36%) of children had transient difficulties, and only a few (0.3–1.9%) showed persistent difficulties in executive function at all ages. There was no consistent evidence of an association between neonatal hypoglycemia and the stability of executive function. Neonatal hypoglycemia does not appear to predict a specific pattern of development of executive function in children born at risk.

The importance of improving cognitive flexibility in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: The case for cognitive remediation therapy.

Inefficiencies in executive functioning (EF), more specifically cognitive flexibility and an overly detailed processing style, are frequently observed in individuals with Anorexia Nervosa (AN) and have been identified as potential targets in treatment. Cognitive Remediation Therapy (CRT) is an adjunctive treatment approach specifically designed to have a positive impact on EF. Mainly evaluated in adults, CRT has been criticized for its perceived ineffectiveness in promoting weight restoration or directly reducing eating disorder symptoms. We argue that we need to refocus our conceptual framework for using CRT as an adjunctive treatment and specifically explore its potential benefit in adolescents. Adolescence is a critical window for EF development during which CRT has the potential to have the most impact. While it may not specifically ameliorate eating disorder symptoms and directly improve weight gain, CRT may mitigate the impact of malnutrition on adolescent brain development, reduce attrition rates in treatment, and improve cognitive flexibility and (indirectly) other maintaining factors, thereby improving global functioning. More research needs to be done to understand the development of EF in adolescents with AN and how best to employ CRT as an adjunctive treatment to support development and target maintaining factors. The current article broadly reviews findings on executive functioning inefficiencies in adolescents with AN and discusses the purpose and role of CRT in treating AN. Finally, we highlight key critiques of using CRT and pose questions for future research. Treatments targeting executive functioning in adolescents with AN are limited. We need to better understand how CRT can benefit adolescents in treatment. Increasing treatment options, including adjunctive treatments, is necessary to reduce the long-term impact of AN.

How Should We Slice Up the Executive Function Pie? Striving Toward an Ontology of Cognitive Control Processes

AbstractThere is a vast literature on executive functioning, or the control of one's thoughts and actions in pursuit of a goal. This broad construct is conceptualized as comprising multiple executive functions (EFs) that support academic achievement and other important life outcomes. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding what, exactly, these core EFs are. This commentary briefly reviews a few dominant models of EFs in developmental and cognitive psychology and outlines issues to be addressed; it then illustrates how insights from neuroscience could help us eliminate redundant terminology and identify EFs that have been largely overlooked. Reaching a consensus regarding the core set of EFs will inform efforts to scaffold EF development and improve educational outcomes.

Association between motor skills and executive function of children with autism spectrum disorder in Taiwan and the United States.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parent ratings of motor skills and executive function (EF) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the United States and Taiwan. One hundred and seventy-two parents/legal guardians of children (4-6 years and 11 months old) with ASD were recruited from two countries, Taiwan (n = 100) and the United States (n = 72). The parents or guardians of the child with ASD completed a questionnaire including demographic information, child's motor skills (using Children Activity Scale - Parents, ChAS-P), and child's EF (using Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory, CHEXI). A series of hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether ChAS-P (total motor score, fine motor skills, and gross motor skill) was associated with CHEXI (total EF score, working memory, and inhibition), after controlling for covariates (i.e., age, gender, race, body mass index, whether children received physical activity or cognitive training, parental education level). Total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills were significantly associated with EF in both working memory and inhibition as rated by parents in both countries (β = 0.21-0.57, p < 0.01), with the exception of a non-significant association between parent-rated total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills, and inhibition among Taiwanese children with ASD. In addition, the associations between parent ratings of motor skills (i.e., fine motor and gross motor skills) and EF (i.e., working memory and inhibition) were similar between the two countries. Positive associations with specific aspects of parent ratings of fine motor and gross motor skills and working memory and inhibition were found in children with ASD from both countries. These findings have implications for future interventions and programs focused on improving early motor skills and EF development for young children with ASD from Taiwan and the United States.