Development Of Biological Weapons Research Articles

Actual Problems of Domestic Legal Regulation of the Collection, Storage and Transmission of Genomic Information in the Context of Modern Challenges

Relevance. The implementation of the international project "Human Genome" made it possible to decipher it, however, the volume of this information and possibilities of its application both for universal (pandemic control) and terrorist purposes (development of biological weapons, targeted at a particular nation), especially in conditions of political tension and competition for leadership, determine the need to forecast potential risks and develop an adequate legal regulation.The purpose of this study is to assess the current state of security of genomic information obtained in the framework of biomedical research, as well as within the framework of implementation of public policy in the sphere of public security. It is also necessary to study the experience of foreign countries in this field with a view to its further use in Russian legal practice.Objectives. Comprehensive study of legal regulation of the collection, storage, use and destruction of genomic information allowed to identify gaps in legal regulation. Finding ways to solve them is the objective of this study.Methodology. To achieve the set objective were applied methods of scientific knowledge: analysis, synthesis, system-analytical, formal-logical, system-legal methods by means of which the authors carried out an analytical review of domestic and foreign legislation, identified the specifics of legal relations under study and proposed solutions to the identified legal problems.Results of the study are formulated suggestions for changes in legal acts of domestic legislation relating to the collection, storage and control of access to genomic information, taking into account the studied foreign experience. Conclusion. The existing regulations on genomic information do not provide protection from processing and transfer to third parties. For this reason human genomic data should be designated as "sui generis", and legal regulation should be expanded, including formation of federal agencies responsible for regulation of ethical and legal aspects of genetic and genomic research.

Strategically matching messaging to the platform: The case of “Biolabs” on Instagram, Facebook, and Reddit

An important Russian strategic disinformation campaign, early in the Ukrainian war, contended that the United States was involved in clandestine biological weapons development in Ukraine under the sign “biolabs.” Depending on the platform, the propaganda messaging appeared differently. This study uses a multi-modal approach, featuring Image Plotting, to study the waves of messaging related involved in the biolabs campaign including both the qualitative analysis of text and the analysis of the images. Each platform includes a clear visual and textual strategy which align with known Russian strategies and multi-modal campaign operations.

Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.

Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.

The Politics of Pseudoscience: Power and Knowledge in Contemporary Russia

ABSTRACT I examine the political significance of pseudoscience in contemporary Russia. Pseudoscience consists of theories and beliefs that pretend to be scientific but are not supported by evidence gathered and analyzed by appropriate methods. I argue that there is a mutually constitutive relationship between state authorities and some members of the pseudoscientific community in Russia. The former use pseudoscience in support of their ideological needs and propaganda efforts, while the latter utilize anti-Western rhetoric to increase their popularity and achieve official recognition. To support this claim, I describe key examples of mobilized pseudoscience and analyze their impact on the Russian narrative regarding the development of biological weapons near Russia’s borders.

COVID-19 vaccination in the national security system of the Russian Federation: coordination of private and public interests

The subject. Having a proven positive social and economic effect, vaccination remains one of the most important institutions in the system of public safety. The development of this institution requires a rational legal support, considering not only current epidemic process, but also potential threats of bioterrorism and the development of biological weapons. In this light, effective legal regulation of vaccination measures, determination of their desirable forms and scope of the population coverage, as well as cooperation between citizens and the State in ensuring epidemiological safety become a matter of paramount importance.The purpose. The authors propose to discuss two issues: the limits of the possibility of introducing the institution of mandatory vaccination and the issue of legal assistance for the population to participate in vaccination programs in order to achieve the maximum possible coverage.The methodology. The article employs a comprehensive approach which combines formal interpretation and comparative analysis of legal acts and courts decisions with the insights from sociology, behavioral sciences and discourse analysis. The article focuses on the international and national standards of regulation of the vaccination by the means of public and private law in order to achieve herd immunity.Our analysis of the vaccination institute place in the legal system demonstrates that this institution can be included in a row of disciplinary, coercive and binding institutions for citizens prescribing mandatory participation. However, its coercive potential is relatively small and is limited to certain segments of the society that are of strategic importance for ensuring the epidemiological safety. The article posits that such groups remain in the legal field of exceptions, whereas in general, the vaccination institute presumes that the mandatory component is prescribed primarily to the state, not the citizens. And therefore, the citizen's participation in vaccination has the character of an individual rational choice.Conclusions. Our analysis shows that the law on vaccination should be focused on the facilitating socially desirable individual choice rather than binding norm prescription. In this area, the main tasks of legal regulation are establishment of an adequate system of accounting and distribution of individual risks, as well as fair compensation for possible damages during vaccinations. The second main direction of legal development is overcoming information asymmetry in the situation of individual decision-making in order to reduce the shortage of reliable data and to ensure effective communication within an expert community, the state and the person. We propose that this development contributes to the transformation of a purely legal norm on vaccination into a social and cultural one and strengthens the cooperative strategies of citizens in the fight against vaccine-controlled diseases.

Belief in conspiracy theories and esoteric thinking during COVID-19 pandemic

IntroductionPsychological distress during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic can manifest itself in interpretations of what is happening.ObjectivesTo analyze response to COVID-19 pandemic in people with high level of esoteric thinking.Methods Internet survey 23.03.20-29.01.21 (N=621); Constructive Thinking Inventory(CTI); SCL-90R. It was proposed to assess statements: “The authorities are hiding the true scale of the coronavirus pandemic”, “Coronavirus is the result of biological weapons development”, “Coronavirus is a punishment or a sign sent to people from above”, “The emergence of the coronavirus is the Earth’s response to its pollution”. It was offered to express an opinion about pandemic. The answers were coded on the basis of qualitative semantic analysis.ResultsThe growth of “esoteric thinking” was revealed (Std.J-T, p=.025). With a high level of esoteric thinking, emotional statements (“fear, anxiety, panic”) are more common (27.8% versus 16.9% for group with high and low level of «esoteric thinking»). Correlations of the level of «esoteric thinking» with level of depression (Spearman’s correlation ,085*), anxiety (,097*), GSI (,130**), «fears for the life» (23.4% versus 14.5%) show high emotional distress. With an increase in the level of «esoteric thinking», belief in various conspiracy theories increases; Spearman’s correlation ,370** with the belief is biological weapons, punishment for sins (,355**), belief in concealing information about the pandemic (,167**).ConclusionsA high level of esoteric thinking is associated with an increased emotional response to the pandemic and with belief in conspiracy theories, and can increase emotional instability by itself also making constructive decisions difficult in situations related to protecting personal health and safety.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Lessons learned from 2001-2021 - from the bioterrorism to the pandemic era.

The aim of the study was to analyze available literature on the development of biological warfare and combating the SARS CoV-2 pandemic. Against the background of contemporary threats from biological factors, the strengths and weaknesses of response in the event of a bioterrorist attack during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic have been identified. The scope and importance of international cooperation in the fight against the pandemic is assessed. The more important literature on bioterrorism, biological weapons and the COVID-19 pandemic, both from earlier work and recent publications, was analyzed, emphasizing new threats and adequate defence against them. The bio-warfare threat and the current COVID 19 pandemic that has hit mankind on a global scale has clearly shown how dangerous biological agents are and what effects they can cause, negatively affecting every sphere of human activity with catastrophic consequences. Data on examples of bioterrorist attacks carried out and research on the development of biological weapons and methods of combating pandemic COVID-19, were reviewed. New threats related to technological development,including those resulting from genetic manipulation, biosynthesis, and modern means of delivery, are pointed out. Attention has been paid to the implications of controlling the proliferation of biological weapons and the issues of international cooperation in the fight against bioterrorism and the COVD-19 pandemic. The lesson learned clearly demonstrates the weakness of states in responding to such threats. The risks of uncontrolled scientific advances are still underestimated. Appropriate international control measures must be taken urgently to prepare for new pandemics, bioterrorist attacks, and the possibility of using modern biological weapons.

The state of legal regulation of the handling of biological weapons in Ukraine

The issue of epidemic safety has been relevant in recent years. The large-scale war that began by Russia on February24, 2022 not only did not solve the issue of protecting public health from various threats, but on the contrary, exacerbatedand increased their relevance. It is necessary to state the constant tension due to the growing risk of Russia’s use of variousweapons, including biological ones, against Ukraine, which is a type of weapon of mass destruction.Given this situation, the article examines the state of legal regulation of the handling of biological weapons in Ukraine.It is stated that such legal regulation corresponds to world trends. Our state is a participant in all international actsrelated to the prohibition and prevention of the use of biological weapons. An analysis of a number of international acts(Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methodsof Warfare (1925), The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (The Biological Weapons Convention or BWC) (1972) etc.),has revealed some of their shortcomings, which lead to the possibility of avoiding responsibility for the development ofbiological weapons or to the difficulty of proving such activities by a particular state. It is established that theseshortcomings lead to the lack of a sufficiently effective mechanism to protect humanity from the use of such weapons. Atthat time, the authors came to the conclusion that national legislation contains strict and sufficient prohibitions on suchacts. At the same time, the paradigm of national security should be reconsidered by creating an effective mechanism forcombating threats to public health, as well as overcoming medical, biological, economic, social, humanitarian and otherconsequences of the spread of particularly dangerous infectious diseases. In general, the existence of armed conflict inour country increases the threat of using biological weapons against civilians or the military, which necessitates deepdevelopment of the problem at the fundamental level for optimal legislative consolidation of new approaches to Ukraine’sepidemic security as part of its national security.

Novel Transcriptional and Translational Biomarkers of Tularemia Vaccine Efficacy in a Mouse Inhalation Model: Proof of Concept.

Francisella tularensis subspecies tularensis (Ftt) is extremely virulent for humans when inhaled as a small particle aerosol (<5 µm). Inhalation of ≥20 viable bacteria is sufficient to initiate infection with a mortality rate ≥30%. Consequently, in the past, Ftt became a primary candidate for biological weapons development. To counter this threat, the USA developed a live vaccine strain (LVS), that showed efficacy in humans against inhalation of virulent Ftt. However, the breakthrough dose was fairly low, and protection waned with time. These weaknesses triggered extensive research for better vaccine candidates. Previously, we showed that deleting the clpB gene from virulent Ftt strain, SCHU S4, resulted in a mutant that was significantly less virulent than LVS for mice, yet better protected them from aerosol challenge with wild-type SCHU S4. To date, comprehensive searches for correlates of protection for SCHU S4 ΔclpB among molecules that are critical signatures of cell-mediated immunity, have yielded little reward. In this study we used transcriptomics analysis to expand the potential range of molecular correlates of protection induced by vaccination with SCHU S4 ΔclpB beyond the usual candidates. The results provide proof-of-concept that unusual host responses to vaccination can potentially serve as novel efficacy biomarkers for new tularemia vaccines.

A Scientific Method to the Madness of Unit 731's Human Experimentation and Biological Warfare Program.

The Japanese Imperial Army Unit 731's Biological Warfare (BW) research program committed atrocious crimes against humanity in their pursuit of biological weapons development during the Second World War. Due to an American cover-up, the details behind Unit 731's human experimentation were slow to be revealed. The recent literature discloses the gruesome details of the experiments but characterizes the human trials as crude in nature. Further, there is a lack of clarity as to how human trial results were extrapolated for use in real world missions. Through an examination of testimony from the Soviet Union's Khabarovsk War Crime Trials, this paper argues that Unit 731's inoculation and airborne warfare experiments on prisoners of war were scientifically rigorous. The scientific method is used as the basis against which the scientific rigor of the experiments is tested. The paper reveals that the successes and failures of the human trials were extrapolated to BW missions during the Sino-Japanese war. American researchers' expectations of BW data were fulfilled, thus paving the way for an immunity deal. Ethical standards in medicine before WWII were not well established, but wartime medical practices and experimentation reveal the context in which the pursuit of scientific knowledge has no boundaries.

Dual-Use Quickscan: A Web-Based Tool to Assess the Dual-Use Potential of Life Science Research.

Research on pathogenic organisms is crucial for medical, biological and agricultural developments. However, biological agents as well as associated knowledge and techniques, can also be misused, for example for the development of biological weapons. Potential malicious use of well-intended research, referred to as “dual-use research”, poses a threat to public health and the environment. There are various international resources providing frameworks to assess dual-use potential of the research concerned. However, concrete instructions for researchers on how to perform a dual-use risk assessment is largely lacking. The international need for practical dual-use monitoring and risk assessment instructions, in addition to the need to raise awareness among scientists about potential dual-use aspects of their research has been identified over the last years by the Netherlands Biosecurity Office, through consulting national and international biorisk stakeholders. We identified that Biorisk Management Advisors and researchers need a practical tool to facilitate a dual-use assessment on their specific research. Therefore, the Netherlands Biosecurity Office developed a web-based Dual-Use Quickscan (www.dualusequickscan.com), that can be used periodically by researchers working with microorganisms to assess potential dual-use risks of their research by answering a set of fifteen yes/no questions. The questions for the tool were extracted from existing international open resources, and categorized into three themes: characteristics of the biological agent, knowledge and technology about the biological agent, and consequences of misuse. The results of the Quickscan provide the researcher with an indication of the dual-use potential of the research and can be used as a basis for further discussions with a Biorisk Management Advisor. The Dual-Use Quickscan can be embedded in a broader system of biosafety and biosecurity that includes dual-use monitoring and awareness within organizations. Increased international attention to examine pathogens with pandemic potential has been enhanced by the current COVID-19 pandemic, hence monitoring of dual-use potential urgently needs to be encouraged.

LEGAL REGULATION OF MOST DANGEROUS MICROORGANISMS STRAINS HANDLING

The statutory basis of Ukraine on the treatment of strains of most dangerous microorganisms has been analyzed, and the terminology important for further understanding of the issue has been clarified. The aim of the paper is to study the state of legal regulation in Ukraine of relations in the field of treatment of strains of especially dangerous microorganisms, to pro- vide analysis of the current legislation of Ukraine in this area, as well as the practice of its application. Theoretical bases of legal support of legitimation of activity in this sphere, including that for the purpose of protection of biological safety have been established. The necessity of legal regulation of participants of relations concerning treatment of strains of especially dangerous microorganisms activity has been substantiated. The current state of legal regulation of relations in the field of strain management requires, given the intersectoral nature of the isssue, consideration of the creation of a single intersectoral authority for the supervision of hazardous biological objects. Such a authority may not only be a licensing authority, but also responsible for the introduction of a register of owners of hazardous biological objects that are not economic entities (for example, individuals – owners of collections of such biological objects).

The Hermit Kingdom’s Forgotten Threat: Evaluating UNSCR 1540’s Effectiveness in Controlling North Korea’s Biological Weapons Program

Abstract Mitigating the proliferation of biological weapons remains uniquely challenging, even 48 years after the ratification of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC). Suspected development of advanced biological weapons by the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea), despite its status as a party to both the BWC and other nonproliferation agreements, has emphasized the need for international efforts to keep biological weapons out of the hands of rogue nations and terrorist networks. Among the numerous weaponized cultures believed to be in development by the North Korean military are anthrax, botulism, cholera, plague and smallpox. With a steady decrease in resources and attention devoted to preparedness for biological attacks or outbreaks since 2001, the United States and its allies remain vulnerable to biological weapons in development by North Korea. An ongoing example of this danger is demonstrated by the international community’s struggle to respond to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. With United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1540’s expiration in 2021, this paper aims to assess its effectiveness in preventing the proliferation of biological weapons by analyzing the legal requirements UNSCR 1540 imposes on UN member nations. Using North Korea’s biological weapons program as a case study, this paper will evaluate the successes and failures of UNSCR 1540’s legal mechanisms in controlling biological weapons development in North Korea in its penultimate year of validity. This paper will also examine the overlapping roles served by the World Health Organization (WHO), the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), and UNSCR 1540, and how their administrative frameworks identify and respond to natural disease outbreaks and biological attacks. Finally, this paper will recommend actions the United Nations Security Council may take to more effectively pursue its mission of nonproliferation.

The role of biosensors and biological weapons in national defence and security operations

The knowledge of biotechnology plays an important role in the development of biological weapons. Biological weapons are considered an attractive factor in war for several reasons: ease of manufacture, low cost, confirmed injury, increased number of victims, large losses incurred by other countries. Biological weapons detection methods are among the most important means of military defense. Biological sensors are used in early detection of weapons. Biotechnology is of paramount importance in all fields of medicine, engineering, agriculture, industry, as well as military life. The key applications of biotechnology in the military are in the areas of sensor systems and systems for protection from espionage. Among the most important countries that have applied knowledge of bioweapons technology into their security system are the USA and China. Despite the enormous advantages of biotechnology, it has negative effects in biological weapon production. Therefore, the near future will witness a tremendous boom in biotechnology. DNA profiling also plays an important role in detection of crime. The overall aim of the review is to emphasize the importance of biotechnology towards solving bioterrorism and other forms of security challenges in an environment.

Biotech, Biodefense and COVID-19 Vaccines in Russia’s National Security State

Russian authorities’ decision to grant the Sputnik V vaccine emergency approval in August 2020 sent shock waves across the scientific and policy-making communities. How did Russia acquire the capacity to develop and produce a vaccine against SARS-Cov-2 so quickly? Based on a case study of the institutions and firms involved in the development and production of Sputnik V, I argue that this capacity results from efforts by Russia’s national security state to turn a Cold War advantage in the development of biological weapons into a contemporary public health advantage in vaccine and drug development. Since at least the late 2000s, the Russian state has pursued a form of security motivated statecraft aimed at supporting both the growth of handpicked domestically-owned biotechnological firms – with their growth being deemed essential to ensuring the pharmaceutical security of Russia’s population and Armed Forces – and the upgrading of state research institutes involved in Russian biodefense – i.e. in defending civilians and military troops against naturally occurring dangerous pathogens or pathogens potentially used in biological weapons. Yet contemporary Russia has also supported those specific firms and research institutes largely because these have had a pre-existing competitive advantage in the science of genetic engineering that they inherited from their involvement in the Soviet Union’s enhanced – effectively, the world’s most advanced – biological weapons program from the mid-1970s until the early 1990s in direct violation of the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention.

CRISPR Cautions: Biosecurity Implications of Gene Editing.

CRISPR, a powerful gene-editing technology, is revolutionizing the life sciences and medical research. The technology has also become democratized. Costs to use CRISPR are low and decreasing, kits are available to make the use of CRISPR straightforward, and there is a rapidly growing scientific literature describing CRISPR methodologies and novel applications. However, like other powerful advances in the life sciences, CRISPR raises biosecurity concerns: it could be misused for harm, and it lowers technical barriers to biological weapons development. This essay describes the history and dissemination of CRISPR as genome-editing techniques have become widespread, outlines potential biosecurity concerns, and recommends actions governments and scientists may take to reduce biosecurity risks. While it is not possible to eliminate biosecurity risks from the misuse of biotechnologies, including CRISPR, steps can be taken to increase security while allowing this powerful technology to remain widely available for beneficent purposes.

Biological Weapons Allegations: A Russian Propaganda Tool to Negatively Implicate the United States

ABSTRACTIn recent years, biological weapons issues have repeatedly been raised by Russian officials and state-controlled media. Considering that biological weapons development and the use thereof are banned by international law, to insinuate that another state is engaged in activities with offensive signatures is politically sensitive. What are the underlying motives for raising these issues? Is Russia using anti-American propaganda in the biosecurity arena as a tool to discredit the United States for general political reasons, or is it used as a means for internal purposes to motivate increased funding for advanced biodefense research and development? A need for additional funding is also in line with views of the Russian military and security doctrines where the threat from biological weapons is explicitly addressed. Russian discrediting is related to the US support of biosafety/biosecurity upgrades at biological laboratories in the former Soviet republics. This Russian stance toward the United States was also reflected in the run-up to the 8th Review Conference of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) in 2016, supported by statements of officials indicating that Russia is threatened by US activities in the biological weapons area. This type of unsubstantiated accusations has not been helpful when attempts were badly needed to make progress in the BTWC context. Russian disinformation campaigns, in relation to biological weapons and possible underlying causes, are presented and discussed.

Dissuading Biological Weapons Proliferation

The terrorist and anthrax attacks of 2001 spurred many countries to raise defences against a possible biological weapon attack, and potentially dissuade state and non-state actors from developing these weapons. Yet these programmes' dissuasive value – creating strong barriers to entry – has never been analysed. This article argues that current biodefence efforts are counterproductive and more persuasive than dissuasive, because they rest on a biological threat narrative that emphasizes the benefits of bioweapons rather than their problematic development and use, and they fail to impose a high cost of entry in the bioweapons field. The dominant biological weapons narrative perpetuates several misconceptions, including that there are no barriers to biological weapons development, that expertise is easily acquired from scientific documents, and that new technologies are black boxes with de-skilling effects. The net result is popularization of a cost/benefit analysis in favour of bioweapons development. To remedy the situation, I suggest correcting these misconceptions by reshaping the biological threat narrative, and recommend policies to achieve a greater dissuasive impact, stressing the role of the Biological Weapons Convention, preventing access to tacit biological weapons skills, and criminalizing bioweapons proliferation by making the development and use of biological weapons a crime against humanity.

&lt;i&gt;Bacillus anthracis&lt;/i&gt; - As Biological Weapons

Terrorism is defined as use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to indulge fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, social or religious. Bioterrorism is terrorism by intentional release or dissemination of biological agents, mainly bacteria or viruses. Use of biological weapons is attractive from the terrorists’ point of view because of low production costs, major range and easiness of transmission. The first mention of the use of primitive biological weapons date back to the 6th century. Use of plague-infested corpses as offensive means in the 14th century caused a spread of bubonic plague through the whole Europe. The biggest development of biological weapons took place in the interwar period and in the cold war era. Biological weapon trails and research were conducted by super powers such as USSR, UK, USA and Japan. At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of bioterrorism occurred, which put humanity in the face of a terrifying threat.

&lt;i&gt;Vibrio cholerae&lt;/i&gt; - As Biological Weapons

Terrorism is defined as use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to indulge fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, social or religious. Bioterrorism is terrorism by intentional release or dissemination of biological agents, mainly bacteria or viruses. Use of biological weapons is attractive from the terrorists’ point of view because of low production costs, major range and easiness of transmission. The first mention of the use of primitive biological weapons date back to the 6th century. Use of plague-infested corpses as offensive means in the 14th century caused a spread of bubonic plague through the whole Europe. The biggest development of biological weapons took place in the interwar period and in the cold war era. Biological weapon trails and research were conducted by super powers such as USSR, UK, USA and Japan. At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of bioterrorism occurred, which put humanity in the face of a terrifying threat. Cholera is a deadly disease that has caused a worldwide phenomenon throughout history. Its imperative weapon, the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, has allowed cholera to seize control and wipe out a huge percentage of the human population. V. cholerae’s toxins are the primary causes of cholera’s lethal symptoms. The bacterium contains toxins that help it accomplish its job of invading the human system and defeating the body’s powerful immune system. With its sibling bacterium Escherichia coli, V. cholerae has become one of the most dominant pathogens in the known world. V. cholerae’s strategies in causing the infamous deadly diarrhea have been widely studied, from the irritation of the intestinal epithelium to the stimulation of capillary leakage, as well as the internal effects of the disease such as the Peyer’s patches on the intestinal walls. Overall, the Vibrio cholera bacterium has made cholera a tough disease to overcome, and because of its deadly virulence factors, cholera has become one of the most frightening diseases a human body could ever encounter. Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, comma-shaped bacterium. Some strains of V. cholerae cause the disease cholera. V. cholerae is facultatively anaerobic and has a flagellum at one cell pole. V. cholerae was first isolated as the cause of cholera by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini in 1854, but his discovery was not widely known until Robert Koch, working independently 30 years later, publicized the knowledge and the means of fighting the disease. V. cholerae pathogenicity genes code for proteins directly or indirectly involved in the virulence of the bacteria. During infection, V. cholerae secretes cholera toxin, a protein that causes profuse, watery diarrhea. Colonization of the small intestine also requires the toxin coregulated pilus (TCP), a thin, flexible, filamentous appendage on the surface of bacterial cells.