Development Of Behavior In Children Research Articles

Maternal concentrations of environmental phenols during early pregnancy and behavioral problems in children aged 4 years from the Shanghai Birth Cohort

BackgroundPrenatal exposure to environmental phenols such as bisphenol (BPs), paraben (PBs), benzophenone (BzPs), and triclosan (TCS) is ubiquitous and occurs in mixtures. Although some of them have been suspected to impact child behavioral development, evidence is still insufficient, and their mixed effects remain unclear. ObjectivesTo explore the association of prenatal exposure to multiple phenols with child behavioral problems. MethodIn a sample of 600 mother–child pairs from the Shanghai Birth Cohort, we quantified 18 phenols (6 PBs, 7 BPs, 4 BzPs, and TCS) in urine samples collected during early pregnancy. Parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires were utilized to evaluate child behavioral difficulties across four subscales, namely conduct, hyperactivity/inattention, emotion, and peer relationship problems, at 4 years of age. Multivariable linear regression was conducted to estimate the relationships between single phenolic compounds and behavioral problems. Additionally, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression was employed to examine the overall effects of the phenol mixture. Sex-stratified analyses were also performed. ResultsOur population was extensively exposed to 10 phenols (direction rates >50 %), with low median concentrations (1.00 × 10−3–6.89 ng/mL). Among them, single chemical analyses revealed that 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone (BP1), TCS, and methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate (MeP) were associated with increased behavior problems, including hyperactivity/inattention (BP1: β = 0.16; 95 % confidence interval [CI]: 0.04, 0.30), emotional problems (BP1: β = 0.11; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.20; TCS: β = 0.08; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.14), and peer problems (MeP: β = 0.10; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.18); however, we did not identify any significant association with conduct problems. Further phenol mixture analyses in the WQS model yielded similar results. Stratification for child sex showed stronger positive associations in boys. ConclusionOur findings indicated that maternal phenol levels during early pregnancy, specifically BP1, TCS, and MeP, are associated with high behavioral problem scores in 4-year-old children.

Urban structure types and students’ academic performance

ABSTRACT In this study, we propose a novel approach for estimating the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and students’ academic performance. We propose the concept of urban morphology by Urban Structure Types (USTs). USTs are spatial indicators that describe the urban system through its physical, environmental, and functional characteristics. Our academic performance data includes 344,175 students from 256 public schools in the Federal District (FD), Brazil. This is student-level academic achievement data from 2017 to 2020. We performed the UST mapping in the FD by using visual interpretation. We classified 21 different types of UST. We fit mixed-effects regression models with a student-specific random intercept and slope. The model was adjusted for temporal factors, SES factors, and variables representing the characteristics and the location of each school. Our findings suggest associations between several types of USTs surrounding schools and academic performance. Overall, areas characterized as low population density, with high green index, and high standard residences were associated with an increase in student performance. In contrast, areas that include old buildings near streets, with significant traffic density, and areas with significant exposed soil (areas devasted) were associated with a decrease in student performance. The results of our study support the creation of effective educational and urban planning policies for local interventions. These interventions are likely to translate into healthier schools and improvements in children's behavioral development and learning performance.

Biological basis of temperament: Respiratory sinus arrhythmia and inhibitory control across childhood.

Temperamental inhibitory control is a foundational capacity for children's social, emotional, and behavioral development. Even though temperament is suggested to have a biological basis, the physiological indicators of inhibitory control remain unclear amid mixed empirical results. In this study, we leveraged a multicohort longitudinal design to examine resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) as a physiological correlate of inhibitory control across the early and middle childhood years. Data were collected annually across four time points from cohorts of 4- (n = 150, Mage = 4.53; SD = 0.30; 49.7% female) and 8- (n = 150; Mage = 8.53; SD = 0.29; 49.7% female) year-old children and their caregivers. There were weak, albeit significant, associations between resting RSA and caregiver-reported inhibitory control in middle childhood but not in early childhood. A stronger association was found for older children when latent trait assessments of RSA and inhibitory control were derived from commonalities across the four annual assessments. We conclude that using repeated measures to extract latent trait scores increases power to detect potential physiological indicators of temperament. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex-specific association between maternal mild anemia and children's behavioral development: a birth cohort study.

There has been limited research on maternal anemia affecting children's behavioral development, with a lack of studies focusing on sex differences in this association. Based on the Ma'anshan Birth Cohort, 2132 mother-child pairs were included. Maternal anemia was evaluated based on the hemoglobin concentration and children's behavioral development was assessed by Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist 1.5-5. Binary logistic regression models indicated that compared with children born of mothers without anemia throughout pregnancy, maternal mild anemia during pregnancy or only anemia in the 3rd trimester was associated with increased risks of aggressive behaviors in boys. Maternal mild anemia only in the 2nd trimester was associated with increased risks of attention problems in boys. In girls, maternal mild anemia during pregnancy was associated with increased risks of withdrawn, internalizing problems and total problems. Girls born of mothers with mild anemia only in the 2nd trimester had higher risks of total problems. Maternal mild anemia in both 2nd and 3rd trimesters was associated with increased risks of internalizing problems in girls. Our study identified sex-specific effects of maternal mild anemia during pregnancy on children's behavioral development problems.

Social class, schadenfreude, and children's prosocial behavior in moral contexts.

Previous research has shown mixed results regarding the relationship between social class and children's prosocial behavior. The current study aims to further our understanding of these findings by exploring the relationship between social class and children's prosocial behavior in a moral context. Study 1 (N = 833) found that when a target child pursued a morally negative goal and subsequently experienced misfortune, children from higher social class, compared to those from lower social class, experienced greater schadenfreude and exhibited less prosocial behavior. The relation between social class and prosocial behavior was mediated by schadenfreude. Study 2 (N = 389) investigated whether the greater schadenfreude experienced by children from higher social class was due to a weaker empathic response to misfortune or a stronger sense of deservingness. The results revealed a sequential mediation effect of social class on prosocial behavior through deservingness and schadenfreude. These findings provide insight into the impact of social class on the development of children's moral judgment, emotions, and behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The association between parents phubbing and prosocial behavior among Chinese preschool children: a moderated mediation model.

The popularization and widespread use of smartphones and other electronic devices have led to the occurrence of "parents phubbing", which may have a negative impact on child-parent relationship and preschoolers' prosocial behavior. To clarify this process, a questionnaire survey was conducted with 3,834 parents from 20 kindergartens in Zhuhai, China. This study examined the relationship between between parents phubbing, closeness child-parent relationship, authoritative parenting style and children's prosocial behavior. According to the study, we found a significant negative correlation between parents phubbing and preschoolers' prosocial behavior. Closeness child-parent relationship mediated between parents phubbing and preschoolers' prosocial behavior through mediation effects analysis. In other words, parent phubbing was negatively associated with closeness child-parent relationship, which in turn predicted less child prosocial behavior. In addition, authoritative parenting styles have a moderating effect. As the level of authoritative parenting style increases, the negative impact of parent phubbing on the prosocial behavior of preschool children is attenuated. This study contributes to the understanding of the relationship between parents phubbing and prosocial behaviors of preschool children, as well as the internal mechanisms at work. Practically, the study suggests that parents should reduce the incidence of phubbing in their contact with their children and, at the same time, work to improve the child-parent relationship and promote the development of prosocial behaviors in children.

Investigating the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure and children's behavioural and emotional development: analysis of the Growing Up in New Zealand study.

To examine the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and children's behavioural and emotional development in a large generalizable sample of women and their children in Aotearoa New Zealand. Using data from the Growing Up in New Zealand longitudinal cohort, we investigated the relationship between maternal PAE and behavioural and emotional development in 8-year-old children. We explored secondary outcomes including measures of language, executive function, academic achievement, and adaptive behaviour. We found no significant differences in the measures of behavioural and emotional development in children 8 years old based on alcohol consumption. No significant differences in behavioural and emotional development were found based on amount of PAE and when PAE occurred, despite controlling for a range of potential confounding factors, such as neighbourhood deprivation and maternal health measures. PAE was associated with significantly higher scores for parent-rated oral language indicating better oral language. In Māori mothers, PAE was significantly associated with an increased risk of higher scores on two of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire subscales. We did not find an association between PAE and behavioural and emotional development in children aged 8years. PAE and behavioural and emotional development are difficult to measure accurately, and the moderating variables between them are complex. Future analyses will require larger cohorts of mothers and their children using precise measures of PAE and outcomes to enable more precise estimates of association.

Effect Of Parenting Styles on Children’s Prosocial Behavior

The aim of the review is to analyze the correlation between parenting styles and children’s prosocial behavior development. Due to the observation of the lack of prosocial behavior in some children’s lives, often with insufficient socialization, social difficulties, and other phenomena that affect future development, we want to figure out the best parenting style for children to grow up. Recently, under the increasingly severe challenge of children’s psychological problems, it is important to review the impact of parenting styles on children's prosocial behavior. Through three databases, we selected literature related to parenting styles and children's prosocial behavior during the late 20 years for study, reference, and analysis. The result showed that authoritative parenting encourages the prosocial behavior of children, while authoritarian parenting hinders the advancement of children's prosocial behavior. After a series of analyses, we concluded that authoritative parenting is currently the most recommended parenting style for the development of well-rounded personalities and prosocial behavior in children. For children and adolescents who lack prosocial behavior, acquired education is helpful in improving their behavior and cognition. The findings indicated that parenting styles is essential for the growth of children’s prosocial behavior.

The association between family functioning and problem behaviors among Chinese preschool left-behind children: the chain mediating effect of emotion regulation and psychological resilience.

The family environment has a significant impact on the psychological and behavioral development of children, especially those who are left behind in preschool and experience parent-child separation at a young age. These children face a greater risk of family dysfunction, which can lead to internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. While numerous studies have established a connection between family functioning and problem behaviors, few have explored the underlying mechanisms driving this relationship. Our study seeks to address this gap by examining how emotion regulation and psychological resilience mediate the link between family functioning and problem behavior. The sample consisted of 940 preschool children (51.5% male, 48.5% female) with a mean age of 5.07 ± 0.80. The main guardians of the children were given the Family Assessment Device, Preschool Children's Emotion Regulation Scale, the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment for Preschoolers (2nd edition), and the Social Skills Improvement System-Rating Scales to assess their family functioning, emotion regulation, psychological resilience, and problem behavior respectively. Lower family functioning was associated with more severe problem behaviors in preschool left-behind children, and emotion regulation and psychological resilience partially mediated the relationship between family functioning and problem behaviors, respectively. In addition, emotion regulation and psychological resilience were also chain mediators between family functioning and problem behaviors. The study's findings highlighted the crucial role of emotional regulation and psychological resilience in the correlation between family functioning and problem behaviors. It is recommended that policymakers and educators place a high priority on the cultivation of internal psychological resources, such as emotional regulation and resilience, in preschool-aged children when designing interventions to address problem behaviors.

Association of preschool children behavior and emotional problems with the parenting behavior of both parents.

Parental behaviors are key in shaping children's psychological and behavioral development, crucial for early identification and prevention of mental health issues, reducing psychological trauma in childhood. To investigate the relationship between parenting behaviors and behavioral and emotional issues in preschool children. From October 2017 to May 2018, 7 kindergartens in Ma'anshan City were selected to conduct a parent self-filled questionnaire - Health Development Survey of Preschool Children. Children's Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (Parent Version) was applied to measures the children's behavioral and emotional performance. Parenting behavior was evaluated using the Parental Behavior Inventory. Binomial logistic regression model was used to analyze the association between the detection rate of preschool children's behavior and emotional problems and their parenting behaviors. High level of parental support/participation was negatively correlated with conduct problems, abnormal hyperactivity, abnormal total difficulty scores and abnormal prosocial behavior problems. High level of maternal support/participation was negatively correlated with abnormal emotional symptoms and abnormal peer interaction in children. High level of parental hostility/coercion was positively correlated with abnormal emotional symptoms, abnormal conduct problems, abnormal hyperactivity, abnormal peer interaction, and abnormal total difficulty scores in children (all P < 0.05). Moreover, paternal parenting behaviors had similarly effects on behavior and emotional problems of preschool children compared with maternal parenting behaviors (all P > 0.05), after calculating ratio of odds ratio values. Our study found that parenting behaviors are associated with behavioral and emotional issues in preschool children. Overall, the more supportive or involved the parents are, the fewer behavioral and emotional problems the children experience; conversely, the more hostile or controlling the parents are, the more behavioral and emotional problems the children face. Moreover, the impact of fathers' parenting behaviors on preschool children's behavior and emotions is no less significant than that of mothers' parenting behaviors.

Maternal Parenting Styles and Middle Childhood Temperament Patterns: A Comparison Between Two Social Classes Residing in an Urban Community

Background: Parenting refers to the usual approaches that parents use in child rearing and is one of the many aspects that play a role in the development of both adaptive and maladaptive behavior in children and adolescents. Parenting styles may be authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive. Temperament refers to the stylistic aspect of behavior and individual differences in behavioral characteristics. This study aimed to compare maternal parenting styles and childhood temperamental patterns between two socioeconomic classes. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study. Sixty mothers from middle and lower socioeconomic status residing in an urban community in Hyderabad were chosen for the study. Data was collected from January to February 2020. Every participant was a mother of two children in the age group 6–12 years. A semi-structured intake proforma was used, along with the Temperament Measurement Schedule and Parental Styles Questionnaire. Factorial ANOVA was used to explore the differences among the different groups. Results: In 76% of the participants, the predominant parenting style was found to be authoritative. Statistically significant differences in parenting styles were seen between the middle and low socioeconomic status groups. Parenting styles differed with the gender of the child. The education of the mother influenced the parenting style. Illiterate participants and participants who did not have at least tenth-grade education had an authoritarian parenting style. Second-born children scored high on the sociability factor compared to firstborn children. The difference between first- and second-born children was statistically significant. Socioeconomic status and the gender of the child had a statistically significant association. Conclusions: Parenting is a complex phenomenon that is influenced by many factors, social class being one such factor.

Association of gestational weight gain rate in pregnant women with children's cognitive and behavioral development: A birth cohort study

BackgroundThe evidences on the relationship between gestational weight gain rate (GWGR) and children's cognitive and behavioral development have been limited. MethodsA total of 3273 singleton live birth mother-child pairs from the Ma'anshan Birth Cohort in China were included in the study. Maternal GWGR was calculated based on the weights measured at multiple antenatal checkups. Children's cognitive and behavioral development were assessed by Chinese version of Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition and Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist 1.5–5. Then generalized linear models were performed for analyses. ResultsIn the field of children's cognitive development, excessive GWGR in the second trimester was associated with increased visual space index (VSI), fluid reasoning index (FRI) and full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) scores, while excessive GWGR in the third trimester was associated with decreased VSI, working memory index (WMI) and FSIQ scores. In the field of children's behavioral development, excessive GWGR in the second trimester was associated with decreased aggressive behaviors and externalizing problems scores. LimitationsChildren's behavioral development was assessed by main caregivers and might cause a certain degree of bias. There might be other potential confounders that we did not take into account. ConclusionsA high GWGR in the second trimester might be beneficial for children's cognitive and behavioral development, while a high GWGR in the third trimester might be harmful.

Building towards an adolescent neural urbanome: Expanding environmental measures using linked external data (LED) in the ABCD study

Many recent studies have demonstrated that environmental contexts, both social and physical, have an important impact on child and adolescent neural and behavioral development. The adoption of geospatial methods, such as in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, has facilitated the exploration of many environmental contexts surrounding participants’ residential locations without creating additional burdens for research participants (i.e., youth and families) in neuroscience studies. However, as the number of linked databases increases, developing a framework that considers the various domains related to child and adolescent environments external to their home becomes crucial. Such a framework needs to identify structural contextual factors that may yield inequalities in children’s built and natural environments; these differences may, in turn, result in downstream negative effects on children from historically minoritized groups. In this paper, we develop such a framework – which we describe as the “adolescent neural urbanome” – and use it to categorize newly geocoded information incorporated into the ABCD Study by the Linked External Data (LED) Environment & Policy Working Group. We also highlight important relationships between the linked measures and describe possible applications of the Adolescent Neural Urbanome. Finally, we provide a number of recommendations and considerations regarding the responsible use and communication of these data, highlighting the potential harm to historically minoritized groups through their misuse.

초기누적위험요인이 어머니의 사회적 양육행동을 매개로 유아행동발달에 미치는 영향

Objectives In this study, we examined the longitudinal impact of early cumulative risk factors on child behavioral development and confirmed whether the mother's social parenting behavior played a mediating role in that process.&#x0D; Methods For 1,434 children and households participating in the Korean Children's Panel, early cumulative risk factors were assessed in the first year's data, mothers' social parenting behavior was assessed in the fourth year's data, and child behavior development was assessed in the fifth year's data(Korean version of the Child Behavior Assessment Scale: CBCL 1.5-5) was used. The initial cumulative risk factors, which are composed of eight risk factors, are the mother's response to basic livelihood security recipients and the next lower class, mother's education level, mother's marital conflict, mother's depression, mother's parenting stress, mother's self-esteem, social support, and family life event was used. Data analysis was performed by conducting mediation regression analysis using Model 4 of Process Macro v4.0.&#x0D; Results In the longitudinal impact of early cumulative risk factors on child behavior development, mothers' social parenting behavior partially mediates infants' internalization, externalization, emotional reactivity, anxiety/depression, physical symptoms, withdrawal, attention problems, aggressive behavior, and other problems. It was found to play a partial mediating role, and sleep problems were found to play a complete mediating role.&#x0D; Conclusions The mother's social parenting behavior was found to have a significant impact on the child behavioral development in the long term by acting as a mechanism to transmit the effects of an unfavorable home environment with early cumulative risk factors to the child. Therefore, we discussed ways to restore and support mothers' social parenting behavior to prevent the long-term negative impact of an unfavorable family environment with early cumulative risk factors on child behavioral development.&#x0D;

The Effect of Parental Rearing Styles on the Prosocial Behavior of 3-6 Years Old Children

Ever since Diana Baumrind put forward the concept of parental rearing styles in 1967, it has been a subject of great concern to the psychological and educational circles. People have become more and more aware of the influence of the family on the development of young children in various aspects. In order to further explore the influence of parental rearing styles on young children's prosocial behavior, this study adopts a systematic literature review method and selects 19 high-quality documents from China national knowledge infrastructure, Readshow and ERIC databases, focusing on analyzing the influence of parental rearing styles on 3-6 years old children's cooperative and helping behaviors. This study finds that authoritative parenting styles are conducive to the development of prosocial behaviors in young children, whereas young children growing up in permissive, neglectful and authoritarian parental rearing styles show less cooperative behaviors and helping behaviors, and poorer development of prosociality. Effective family education guidance strategies are ultimately proposed to promote parents to adopt positive parental rearing styles to facilitate the development of prosocial behaviors in young children.

Parenting Patterns in the Formation of Children's Behavior (Case Study in Children with ADHD)

Parents play a crucial role as the primary caregivers and educators of children, each employing their unique parenting style. This research aimed to elucidate the parenting patterns employed by parents in influencing the behavior of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The study utilized a qualitative research method with a case study approach, focusing on children diagnosed with ADHD. The data collection process incorporated interviews, observations, and documentary studies. Rigorous data validation is achieved through source triangulation and technique triangulation. The interactive analysis model involves data reduction, presentation, and subsequent conclusion drawing. The research findings reveal that parents of children with ADHD adopt both permissive and authoritarian parenting patterns. Observable parenting behaviors include allowing excessive freedom, maintaining a constant belief in being right, and consistently acquiescing to the desires of the ADHD child. These parenting patterns contribute to the development of dependent behaviors in children, manifesting as an unwillingness to compromise, emotional instability, and involvement in actions detrimental to others.

Triple Interactions Between the Environment, Brain, and Behavior in Children: An ABCD Study

BackgroundEnvironmental exposures play a crucial role in shaping children's behavioral development. However, the mechanisms by which these exposures interact with brain functional connectivity and influence behavior remain unexplored. MethodsWe investigated the comprehensive environment-brain-behavior triple interactions through rigorous association, prediction, and mediation analyses, while adjusting for multiple confounders. Particularly, we examined the predictive power of brain functional network connectivity (FNC) and 41 environmental exposures for 23 behaviors related to cognitive ability and mental health in 7655 children selected from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study at both baseline and follow-up. ResultsFNC demonstrated more predictability for cognitive abilities than for mental health, with cross-validation from the UK Biobank study (N = 20,852), highlighting the importance of thalamus and hippocampus in longitudinal prediction, while FNC+environment demonstrated more predictive power than FNC in both cross-sectional and longitudinal prediction of all behaviors, especially for mental health (r = 0.32–0.63). We found that family and neighborhood exposures were common critical environmental influencers on cognitive ability and mental health, which can be mediated by FNC significantly. Healthy perinatal development was a unique protective factor for higher cognitive ability, whereas sleep problems, family conflicts, and adverse school environments specifically increased risk of poor mental health. ConclusionsThis work revealed comprehensive environment-brain-behavior triple interactions based on the ABCD Study, identified cognitive control and default mode networks as the most predictive functional networks for a wide repertoire of behaviors, and underscored the long-lasting impact of critical environmental exposures on childhood development, in which sleep problems were the most prominent factors affecting mental health.

Urban green spaces and behavioral and cognitive development in children: A health impact assessment of the Barcelona “Eixos Verds” Plan (Green Axis Plan)

BackgroundUrban environments lack natural features, while nature exposure in cities has been associated with health benefits, including children's neurodevelopment. Through extensive street greening, Barcelona's Eixos Verds (Green Axis) Plan enhances safety, environment, and climate resilience. We aimed to assess the Eixos Verds Plan's potential impact on children's behavioral and cognitive development due to the increased green space expected under the Eixos Verds implementation. MethodsWe performed a quantitative health impact assessment for Barcelona children at census-tract level (n = 1068). We assessed the Eixos Verds Plan's impact by comparing baseline green space distribution with the proposed plan, translating it into percentage green area (%GA) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). By combining these exposure metrics with child-specific risk estimates and population data, we estimated potential improvements in children's behavioral and cognitive development due to full Eixos Verds implementation. ResultsWith the full Eixos Verds implementation, citywide, %GA increased by 6.9% (IQR: 6.4%; range: 0–23.1%) and NDVI by 0.065 (IQR: 0.083; range: 0.000–0.194). Child behavioral and cognitive development outcomes are expected to improve compared to the baseline. Based on NDVI increases, children's Total Difficulties and Hyperactivity/Inattention scores, based on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), are projected to decrease by 5% (95% CI: 0–15%) and 6% (95% CI: 0–17%). Working Memory and Superior Working Memory scores are expected to increase by 4% and 5%, respectively, based on the computerized n-back test, while the Inattentiveness score could be reduced by 1%, based on the computerized attentional test (ANT). InterpretationUrban greening as planning tool can improve behavioral and cognitive development in city children. Methods and results of our study are applicable to many cities worldwide, and similar results for children of real-life urban greening interventions can be expected.

Does marital satisfaction predict children aggression? Insights from parents' and children's psychological distress

AbstractMarital satisfaction is a key indicator of family members' life satisfaction and mental and physical health. Parents' marital functioning affects their children's development. Given the significant impacts of marital satisfaction on children's psychological and behavioural development, the influencing paths need to be explored. This study aims to extend prior research by examining the direct effect of marital satisfaction on children's aggression and the intermediary roles of parents' and children's psychological distress. Using multi‐stage cluster random sampling, a total of 971 children and their parents were recruited in Shaanxi Province in Mainland China. Self‐reported questionnaires regarding marital satisfaction, psychological distress and aggression were completed. Results showed no significant direct impact of marital satisfaction on children's aggression, but children's psychological distress mediated this link. Moreover, parents' and children's psychological distress served as sequential mediators in the nexus between marital satisfaction and children's aggression. It means that a chain mediating mechanism existed. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms may offer valuable insights that would aid policymakers and clinicians in designing effective prevention and interventions targeting children's behavioural problems.

Preschoolers’ Executive Function Development and Maternal Birth Experience: The Moderating Role of Depression and the Mode of Delivery

Early executive functioning is a crucial precursor to the future cognitive and behavioral development of children. Given that the mother is typically the child’s primary caregiver, her maternal behavior may be an important factor that either facilitates or hinders the child’s cognitive development, especially if the mother suffers from depression. It is important to analyze these effects, taking into consideration the mother’s birth experience. This study focuses on assessing the child’s executive functions, the mother’s concomitant depression and her birth experience, including the mode of delivery. The results obtained have shown no significant relationship between the executive function performance and the mother’s concomitant depression. However, significant relationships have been found between the child’s executive function performance and complications during the mother’s pregnancy, birth and mode of delivery. The regression analysis shows that cesarean birth reduces the child’s overall executive function performance by 1 point, while the data of the moderation analysis including the mode of delivery and mother’s depression are not statistically significant. The total executive performance score is largely related to the mother’s educational level. The mother’s perinatal depression may have a stronger adverse effect on the child’s development than her concomitant depression. A higher level of the mother’s education may be a protective factor that could potentially offset the cesarean birth effect.