Development-induced Displacement Research Articles

Development-Induced Displacements and Livelihood Options — A Case of the Chingwizi Community in Mwenezi Rural District

Using primary data of 100 households and literature review, this study examined the socio-economic opportunities or lack of them as well as vulnerabilities encountered by the Chingwizi Community in Mwenezi Rural District in Masvingo Province. The study argues that the Chingwizi people are rational, resourceful and strategic actors. It further contents that the relocated households were plunged into deeper socio-economic problems as the climatic and infrastructural conditions in the new area are harsher than where they were coming from. Primary data was collected from key informants through interviews, informal conversations and observation. Key informants included government officials from the ministries of local government, agriculture and land resettlement, community leadership (both traditional and elected), development workers from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the resettled farmers of Chingwizi in general. Literature review involved discussing empirical findings by other scholars on development-induced displacements (DIDs) in other parts of the world and Zimbabwe in particular. Findings from the study indicate that the state failed to fulfill its promises to the relocated households and that the principles of free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), fair and comprehensive compensation (FCC) as well as inclusive socio-economic development and profit-sharing (ISDP) were ignored by the state in the process of relocating households from Chivi and Masvingo rural areas. In light of the foregoing the study recommends the need to engage those communities affected by development projects so that sustainable options are arrived at.

The Causes, Consequences, and Challenges of Development-Induced Displacement with Special Reference to West Bengal, India

The Causes, Consequences, and Challenges of Development-Induced Displacement with Special Reference to West Bengal, India

Special Feature: Putting urban displacement in its place

This paper offers a critical analysis of urban displacement and acts as an introduction to the Special Feature: ‘Putting urban displacement in its place’. It begins by noting the magnitude and significance of displacement, and summarises its constituent components. Drawing upon the work of Hirsh, Eizenberg and Jabareen [2020. “A New Conceptual Framework for Understanding Displacement: Bridging the Gaps in Displacement Literature between the Global South and the Global North.” Journal of Planning Literature 35 (4): 391–407], the paper then outlines four kinds of urban displacement processes which span cities in the Global South and North: development-induced displacement, slum clearance, eviction, and gentrification. Brief consideration is also given to the significance of studentification, touristification, and austerity for driving urban displacement. Next the paper explores three crucial issues regarding the conceptualisation of urban displacement: temporality, vulnerability to displacement, and its emotional impacts. The following section discusses rehousing/resettlement and post-displacement experiences. We then examine the contested relationship between displacement and gentrification. The penultimate section outlines some of the methodological challenges in undertaking research on displacement, and also returns to the theme of placing urban displacement via a discussion of urban politics. The final section summarises the four papers in the Special Feature.

A Legal History of Land Acquisition in India

Development-induced displacement (DID) significantly dominates the problem of internal displacement in India. It occurs when people are forced to leave their habitat to implement large-scale infrastructural projects. Some 10 million people worldwide are displaced or resettled every year due to development projects, with the largest share of displacement due to the construction of dams, urbanization and mining. It has been regarded as ‘the youngest type of involuntary migration.’
 In India, the problem of development-induced displacement is quite historical. However, it was only during the British period that the development-induced displacement started gaining attention. This paper seeks to discover the roots of development-induced displacement in India in its pre and post-independent periods. It also discusses the development of various acts of land appropriation since the Company Raj till the present day to understand the patterns and nature of land acquisition and displacement.

Resettlement and Displaced Communities Challenges and Prospects – A Case Study of M-4 Project from Gojra to Shorkot Section

Development is crucial for the prosperity of any country. Infrastructural development plays a vital role in the socioeconomic development of the country. However, sometimes it causes development-induced displacement that results in trauma for displaced community and creates challenges for them. In this vein, the current paper aims to explore challenges and prospects of development-induced development of the M-4 project where in 3674 persons were affected from Gojra to Shorkot. A qualitative stance was adopted to account the actual experiences of the Projected Affected Persons (PAPs), whose families were displaced due to M-4 project. A total of twelve Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) were conducted. In which 93 Project Affected Persons (PAPs) participated. Thematic analysis was carried out to draw major themes. It was found that the affected families faced many social cultural and economic challenges while being displaced from their owned assets. The Project Affected Persons families became homeless and landholders became landless. Their source of livelihood vanished and they felt hard to change their means of livelihood. It is suggested that the government and other funding agencies should play their vibrant role in the diminution of the challenges they are still facing in bringing themselves back into mainstream society.

Does poverty alleviation resettlement improve resettlees' subjective social status? Longitudinal evidence from China

China's poverty alleviation resettlement (PAR) project relocated millions of residents in deprived areas to more favorable settlements. Although previous studies highlight that resettlees benefit financially, limited attention has been paid to understanding their subjective social status (SSS) in resettled communities. The current study addresses this gap by examining the causal effect of resettlement on resettlees' SSS based on a unique four-wave large-scale survey dataset of 1649 households across eight major PAR-covered Chinese provinces, collected both before and after their resettlement. The findings show that China's PAR project significantly improved resettlees' SSS, regardless of the resettlement mode (i.e., centralized and scattered resettlement) or resettlement location (i.e., village, town, and county). We also observed an inverse-U relationship between post-resettlement duration and SSS, where post-resettlement duration increased SSS at an early stage and decreased as the duration of residence exceeded a turning point. The mediation analyses revealed that PAR influences SSS by promoting resettlees' physical capital rather than through social capital. Our findings suggest that China's PAR can provide a reference for other development-induced displacement and resettlement projects in developing countries.

Unearthing the Conflict of Induced Displacement of Dalits and Tribals in Kashipur: Critical Insight into Utkal Alumina International Limited Operation

Development-induced-displacement (DID) in remote locations has jeopardized the welfare of Tribal and Dalit communities (TDC), which has reached a magnitude and frequency that requires immediate attention and worldwide significance. Therefore, the current study seeks to explore the impact of forced displacement on tribal identity, culture and traditional sources of livelihood in the establishment of Utkal Alumina International Limited (UAIL) in Kashipur (Odisha). The study has addressed three objectives: (a) to what extent did politicizing the UAIL operation by the upper-caste community altered the compensatory R&R (rehabilitation and resettlement) benefits received by TDC, (b) to measure the impact of displacement and the extent of loss of livelihood caused by UAIL and (c) to what extent tribal identity, culture and livelihood security been eroded in the process of UAIL establishment. Amid the essentiality for balanced reconciliation between displacement and resettlement, the study found that the impact of DID is not homogenous on society but has affected the TDC differently due to corrupt intervention of upper-caste officials, resulting in delayed or denied compensation. The study recommends an immediate requirement of risk reversal explicit strategies backed up by adequate financing for reconstructing and improving the livelihood of displaced masses.

Contested values of development: Experiencing commodification of livelihoods through displacement and resettlement in Mozambique

This article examines how and why values are created and contested in the process of development, using an example of development-induced displacement and resettlement in Mozambique. It pays particular attention to the social-material effects of compensation, provided as cash, resettlement housing, replacement land, and basic infrastructure. Drawing from field research on an urban resettlement project of the Limpopo National Park in Massingir district, the article shows that the compensation leads to commodification of livelihoods by reducing the original, largely social and cultural meaning of the livelihood to predominantly an economic one. This is because the provided housing and land for cultivation are standardised and infrastructure incurs cash payments and new labour arrangements. At the same time, the study elucidates processes by which experiencing displacement and resettlement – and cash and in-kind compensation given in this process and commodification that ensued – led the resettled people to reshape their livelihoods in such a way as to re-establish the familiar houses and organise a collective. Outcomes of this process are ambivalent, as they may accelerate uneven development. Yet, the article expounds that recognising this ambivalence at least opens space for deliberations about addressing the contested values of development.

Socioeconomic Impacts of Development-Induced Displacement on Informal Settlement in Qalacha Khamdan, Kabul City, Afghanistan

Development-induced displacement projects mainly involved locations with informal settlements, especially slum and squatter areas which left behind many socioeconomic impacts on displacement households. This forced displacement has caused breaking living patterns and social networks, destroying economic status, increasing infectious diseases, and other severe health problems. Many development projects, such as dam projects, airports, and road projects, have been implemented since 2001 in Afghanistan. The Kabul-Logar Road extension project, located on the southern side of Kabul city, has foreseen will destroy the existing socioeconomic status of Qalacha Khamdan's dwellers. Therefore, this paper examines the socioeconomic impacts of development-induced displacement on informal settlements in Qalacha Khamdan by the Kabul-Logar Road extension project. Data has been collected through site observation, questionnaires survey of heads of families affected, interviews with key informants, committees’ members, and some data from Cernea's model (IRR). The finding shows that the displaced population has lost social cohesion, social ties, close connectivity with brothers, relatives and neighbourhoods, businesses, valuable lands and well-designed homes. Finally, this study argues for more government and private sector involvement to manage the socioeconomic impacts of development-induced displacement after displacement.

Development-Induced Displacement in India and the Tribal Rights: A Quest for Social Justice

Human population displacement from natural environments has a variety of socio-economic consequences. Displacement induced by larger projects has resulted in a transfer of resources from the marginalized to the more privileged sections of society in India’s development paradigm. Mega Projects like dams, Infrastructure, and Industries, in particular, subject certain sections of society and make them sufferers of development, primarily tribals who never receive the benefits of this kind of economic development. It would be apt to generalize that the size of the development project is directly proportional to its impact on tribals. Development initiatives have disproportionately impacted tribal people. This article aims to delve deeper into the impact of displacement on tribal communities’ livelihoods. It will identify the most pressing issues they confront due to development-induced displacement and rehabilitation. A study by the Centre for Policy Research concerning land rights reflects that nearly 55% of people have been displaced, citing reasons for developing industrial projects and dam building since independence. A detailed literature review was done by using major database like Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.

Forward Ever, Backward Never: Examining the Relationship between Colonial Violence and Capitalist Development in a Caribbean Context


 
 
 This paper very briefly challenges the normative understanding of development as purely beneficial and aspirational. It argues that capitalist development, as it manifests in the Caribbean, is built on a foundation of colonial violence and exploitation. The paper takes a twofold approach to exploring this relationship, arguing (1) that colonial violence and capitalist development are mutually reinforcing and (2) that the violent legacies of the colonial encounter are replicated in modern-day development initiatives. Through an analysis of development projects in Haiti and Belize, this paper shows how development-induced displacement, environmental degradation, and the erasure of indigenous culture and customs are all examples of this ongoing replication of colonial violence. The paper incorporates scholarship that ex- plains the continued existence of this relationship and raises important questions about how to move forward. Finally, it calls for more decolonial perspectives and critical approaches to capitalist development that recognize and address the ongoing effects of colonial violence especially in Caribbean contexts.
 
 

Tribal Migration in Indian Censuses: A Neglected and Litigated Area

Tribe and caste migration in Indian Censuses did not get proper attention during the colonial as well as post-independence periods. Censuses in the post-independence period have followed a conservative approach to enumerating tribes, castes and religions. The migration data on Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs) have been presented since the 2001 Census, but its scope is limited. The enumeration of inter-state migration of STs is entangled in legislative jargon. When tribes in India have dipped into severe poverty and unemployment, forcefully alienated from forests and hills, confronted development-induced displacement, and migrated by distress driven to the urban centres in distant places in search of jobs. When the demand for independent territory or statehood, such as Nagalim, Zale’n-gam and many others, consolidating the tribal inhabited areas bifurcated into three to four neighbouring states leads to insurgency and mass cross-border movement of ethnic groups. The presumption of ST migration within the jurisdiction of the State/UT of enumeration in the Censuses during the post-independence period is delusive and very irrational. The study provides insight into such limitations of Census data on tribal migration, legislative jargon and politics involved with it. It also discusses the nature of provided data on tribal migration.

How does the grassroots drive just transition? Evidence from an alteration of resettlement sites in China

Dam-induced resettlement is a typical pattern of development-induced displacement and resettlement (DIDR), which concludes involuntariness and leads to injustice practices. Although the justice of resettlement is studied in existing works, few of them notice that the selection of resettlement sites might be holistically an opportunity for just transition, and the performance of this process is not totally a government arrangement. To address this gap, this paper takes the Multi-level Perspective (MLP) as the theoretical framework, and adopts mixed methods to examine a second selection case of resettlement sites for the Wuxikou dam in Jiangxi Province, China. Based on grounded theory, five categories of resettlees' demands for resettlement sites, namely agricultural production (AP), non-agricultural production (NAP), material life (ML), social life (SL), and reception of natural ecology (RNE) are identified. The multiple conjunctural causation between these demands and resettlees' actions for changing initial resettlement sites is analyzed by Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). Four intermediate solutions as well as the core and peripheral conditions are found. Apart from the bottom-up petitions, how the political environment and governmental administration enabled the resettlees' request for altering resettlement sites is illustrated. It is found that, although the government and resettlees with different interests and action logics, the same result is promoted under the national policies,viz, the implementation of changing resettlement sites, process justice and outcome justice are therein realized. Relative policy implications and outlooks on just resettlement practice are remarked.

Placing Indian Village System in the Centre of Development-Induced Displacement Discourse

The contemporary development process under the impact of neo-liberal policies has rapidly changed and restructured the socio-economic sphere of village life in India. The evolving pattern of rural society has turned its socio-economic structure into a complex space full of contradictions. As a result, the geographical space has been altered in terms of the representation of maps, information, and ideological interests. These spatial patterns have added to the complexities of space that have attracted scholars who relate it to new theories in developmental economics. The present paper attempts to analyse some of these aspects of the Indian rural society undergoing the process of development and displacement and its impact on different socio-economic groups, i.e., peasants, small and marginal farmers, share-croppers, artisans, agricultural labourers, and landless labourers. One-sided development, especially in the agrarian economy, disturbs the traditional skill, livelihood, and social order ultimately spreading the issues of unsustainable livelihood, hardship, and marginalization in peri-urban areas. Reskilling and participation in the decision-making process of the displaced people of developing society have become a challenging issue for policy orientation related to Development Induced Displacement (DID).

The Effect of Development-induced Displacement on Adivasis: Evidence from the Rourkela Steel Plant Project in India

This paper analyses the long-term impact of displacement by assessing the impoverishment risks among the displaced adivasi population of Rourkela resettled in peri-urban and rural resettlement colonies. The study ascertains that even after six decades of displacement, adivasis in both resettlement colonies continue to face such risks, however, to a different degree according to where they were resettled. Joblessness has been a common risk among them, and it seems central to all other risks. Moreover, the persistence of these impoverishment risks among them is attributed to the violation of constitutional provisions and unfulfilled promises during and post-displacement period.

To leave or not to leave? ‘Intention’ is the question. Investigating farmers' decision behaviours of participating in contemporary China's rural resettlement programme

Massive Development-induced Displacement and Resettlement have been taking places globally, in which China accounts for the major proportion. In recent years, resettlement in China was greatly promoted since the introduction of the Link Policy, which calls for rural resettlement and land consolidation to offer space for urban development. Consequently, cases of violations of farmers' interests appears constantly. This study aims to analyse farmers' decision behaviours of participating in the Link Policy so as to provide policy recommendations for local governments to protect farmers' interests during the resettlement process. With the Theory of Planned Behaviour and case study method, findings from this research show that farmers' subjective norm, perceived behaviour control and attitude are all significantly influencing their behavioural intentions of participation. Corresponding to the more detailed factor analysis results for each construct of TPB, policy recommendations are provided to secure farmers' land use rights and related interests and contribute to achieving a more successful and peaceful rural resettlement under the Link Policy in China's rapid urbanisation and industrialisation process. Reflections of the Link Policy in China can also shed lights on the implementations of resettlement programmes in many other countries. • This paper aims to investigate farmers’ decision behaviours in participating China’s rural resettlement programme under the Link Policy. • The Theory of Planned Behaviour was adopted to analyse farmers’ decision behaviours given interviews in resettled communities in Ezhou. • Farmers’ subjective norm, perceived behaviour control and attitude are significantly influencing their behavioural intentions. • Policy recommendations are provided to secure farmers’ land use rights and related interests in the resettlement process.

Unsustainable development, disasters and displacement: Revisiting the governance challenge

The increasing frequency and magnitude of disasters – many of which are considered to reflect intensifying climate change – are leading to more collisions between environmental hazards and unsustainable and/or irresponsible development practices that trigger displacement. Displacement in the context of disasters and climate change has been attracting much attention in recent years, while the complexities of development-induced displacement are well-documented in the forced migration field. Yet, the intersection between unsustainable development, disasters and displacement remains inadequately examined. The context that enables the nexus between unsustainable development and disasters to form, and the implications it carries for addressing displacement raises complex governance challenges.This article aims to promote greater reflections on such context and some of these challenges by examining the case of 2021 Atami mudslide disaster in Japan, where the collapse of inappropriately constructed landfill located on top of the affected area has been identified as a major factor. The analysis considers the underlying circumstances within which this disaster occurred by examining relevant legacies from Japan's post-war developmentalist era. It also reviews relevant policy and regulatory frameworks pertaining to territorial development and disaster risk reduction and management, revealing how fragmentation between these policy domains impact on the ability to address displacement in multi-hazard situations. The conclusion highlights the policy implications that this case raises about the feasibility of existing administrative and regulatory set-ups to supervise and enforce corrective measures when it comes to unsustainable and/or irresponsible development practices and projects that magnify existing risks of disasters and displacement.

Impact of Development-induced Displacement on Children: A Study in Jammu Region

India focused on various development projects like dams, power plants, highways, etc. after independence. Proverbially regarded as symbols of modern India, they enabled the country to kickstart a forward journey towards self-reliance and economic development, especially through the Five Year Plans. While an array of development projects laid the foundations of a prosperous nation, they also resulted in large scale displacement of citizens who faced loss of land and livelihood without much relief due to lacunae in land acquisition laws prevailing in the country.

Tribal Movements against Mining-induced Displacement in Odisha: The Case of Dongria Kondh’s Niyamgiri Movement

Contemporary Odisha has witnessed many micro-social movements fighting industrialization, mining, major dams, and similar development projects. The introduction of these projects has a massive impact on tribe lives, survival, and cultural identity of tribes. The most recent one is the severe uproar from the Lanjigarh area’s inhabitants against the Vedanta, which was about to set up a bauxite-aluminum factory near Niyamagiri Hill. The article attempts to highlight the historical resistance of tribals against development-induced displacement both during pre- and post-independence in Odisha and discuss the magnitude of displacement due to development-induced projects, impacts, rehabilitation, and resettlement. It further presents the Dongria Kondh community’s struggle against the alumina refinery and the new bauxite mining project in Niyamgiri. The victory of Niyamgiri provides moral support, courage, and a ray of hope for the other tribal people in India who have been battling for rights to forest and land for days. Tribal movements have forced the postponement or cancellation of numerous projects, raising questions about their long-term viability. Thus, protest movements have compelled governments to review displacement issues and implement necessary measures to address them.

‘Sustainability of what, for whom? A critical analysis of Chinese development induced displacement and resettlement (DIDR) programs

Most studies and influential agencies propose a shift to sustainability thinking and regard it as an important means of coordinating economic, social and environmental development. However, much less research focusses on conflicts over resources, the issue of asymmetrical power, and value-and-cultural conflicts behind the trajectories of sustainable development. For countries speeding up transitions such as China, it can be asked how and why might accelerating sustainability transitions through resettlement become a new utopia or a poverty trap? To examine the significance of this question for sustainability, we explore three development-induced displacement and resettlement (DIDR) programs in China: dam-induced resettlement, poverty-alleviation oriented relocation (including ecological migration) and agglomeration of villages. This research examines normative issues of Chinese policies for sustainability. We find that building sustainability via DIDR will not be as easy as projected and could lead to new poverty traps that disadvantage some groups of people, such as resettlees. We highlight three themes, the change of resettlees’ financial conditions, land access and local governance, to explore how competition is skewed between resettlees and local governments while speeding up to pursue more ambitious goals. We find that with the increased pace of implementation of quick sustainability policies that power lies with local governments to the detriment of resettlees. DIDR can become a just governance tool to build sustainability, but only if there is sufficient agreement among all stakeholders on a transparent, accountable and collaborative approach. Without inclusion and equality in transitions, potential risks and challenges can eclipse sustainable development.