Developed Finite Element Model Research Articles

Crushing performance and energy absorption characteristics of aluminum/CFRP hybrid thin-walled tubes: Experimental and numerical investigations

This paper presents both experimental and numerical studies with the main purpose of exploring the crushing behavior of aluminum/CFRP hybrid thin-walled tubes under compression conditions. In particular, aluminum/CFRP tubes with 8, 10, and 12 layers of composites are considered, and the energy absorption characteristics are examined by quasi-static crushing experiments. An explicit finite element (FE) model is developed to investigate the axial crushing response and damage behavior of aluminum/CFRP tubes. Following validation against the experimental data, the developed FE model is applied to analyze the effects of number of layers and loading angles on the failure mechanism and energy absorption indexes of different tube configurations. The obtained results provide valuable insights into a practical energy absorption solution for aluminum/CFRP tubes subjected to crushing conditions, thereby contributing to the long-term development of the related industry.

Strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with insufficient lapped splice length of reinforcing bars

The insufficient lapped splice length of reinforcing bars due to the design or construction errors reduces both the flexural strength and ductility of Reinforced Concrete (RC) beams. The defected RC beams need to be strengthened to allow structures to be ductile and robust in their design life. This paper reports experimental and numerical investigations into the flexural behavior of RC beams having insufficient lapped splice length of reinforcing bars strengthened by various techniques. Eleven RC beams have been tested to examine the effects of strengthening techniques and anchorage lengths of the strengthening materials on the performance of the beams. The test program and results are described on RC beam specimens strengthened by using the externally bonded stainless-steel (EBSS) sheets, the near surface mounted (NSM) steel bars, and the external prestressing system. Finite Element (FE) models are developed using ABAQUS to simulate the responses of strengthened RC beams in which the lapped splice length of reinforcement is inadequate. A parametric study is conducted using the validated FE models to examine the effects of the length of EBSS sheets and steel anchor bolts at the ends on structural behavior. An analytical model is proposed for calculating the ultimate capacity of beams strengthened by NSM technique. Experimental results reveal that the proposed strengthening methods can significantly improve both the cracking and ultimate loads of the defected beams. The application of the external prestressing method results in the largest increase in the cracking and ultimate loads of the defected beams calculated as 222 % and 213 %, respectively compared to the defected control beam. The ultimate load of the defected beam strengthened with EBSS sheet, NSM steel bars, and prestressing system with a length of 100D increases by 50 %, 109 %, and 182 %, respectively. It is shown that the developed FE models can accurately predict the behavior of strengthened beams having inadequate lapped splice length of reinforcing bars. The parametric study demonstrates that strengthening the entire clear span of the beam B-ESS-65D with EBSS sheet increases its ultimate load by 207 %. The failure mode of strengthened beams is ductile bending without debonding. The proposed analytical model is shown to yield accurate calculations of the ultimate loads of strengthened RC beams.

The thermal responses of composite box girder bridges with corrugated steel webs under solar radiation

Owing to the direct exposure to complex atmospheric environments, the temperature field of composite box girder bridge with corrugated steel webs (CBGB-CSW) is likely non-uniformly distributed. Whereas, the current researches regarding the thermal responses of CBGB-CSW are insufficient, and the thermal responses of CBGB-CSW under solar radiation are still unknown. Therefore, this paper conducted a long-term temperature experiment on a scaled model to explore the temperature distribution characteristics in CBGB-CSW. Meanwhile, a three-dimensional thermal–mechanical coupling Finite Element (FE) model is established to simulate the temperature field in the experiment girder. The accuracy and effectiveness of the developed FE model has been verified by the measured temperature data. Therewith, the thermal responses (i.e., stress and displacement) of a full-scale continuous CBGB-CSW with a span of 150 m are numerically investigated. The results indicate that the maximum stresses always occur at the midspan section (with a depth of 5 m) of the continuous CBGB-CSW, and considerable concentrations of stress are observed in the steel-concrete junction. The maximum longitudinal tensile and compressive normal stresses within 0.4 m of the upper junction can reach 5.55 MPa and −8.46 MPa respectively, and those of the lower junction can reach 6.96 MPa and −7.05 MPa respectively. Besides, owing to the impacts of vertical and horizontal temperature gradients, significant displacements of the whole bridge can also be observed. The maximum vertical displacement (5.33 mm) of the CBGB-CSW is estimated at the top plate in the midspan, while the maximum horizontal displacement (0.74 mm) is estimated at the trough of the southern corrugated steel web in the midspan. Notably, the outcomes of this paper can provide some useful references for engineers and scholars to understand the thermal responses of the CBGB-CSW.

Fire resistance of square double-skin concrete-filled steel tubular columns and concrete-filled double steel tubular columns

Square double-skin concrete-filled steel tubular (DSCFST) columns and concrete-filled double steel (CFDST) columns possess excellent load-carrying capacity and ductility. However, there has been limited research on the responses of DSCFST and square CFDST columns exposed to fire. This paper presents a series of tests on such columns loaded concentrically to determine the effects of the steel tube thickness, the strength of materials, load ratio, and boundary conditions on their fire resistance. Additionally, finite element (FE) models are established using ABAQUS, in which the concrete’s transient creep strain is considered through the development of the user-subroutine UEXPAN. A parametric study is undertaken by simulating 156 FE models to further study the behavior of DSCFST and CFDST columns under fire exposure. The fire test and numerical results suggest that both the load ratio and strengths of the internal tube and concrete core play significant roles in determining the fire resistance of DSCFST and CFDST columns. The developed FE models are demonstrated to capture well the fire behavior of loaded DSCFST and CFDST columns. The proposed design model predicts the ultimate loads of DSCFST columns with good accuracy; therefore, it can be employed in the practical design of DSCFST columns.

Numerical Modelling of Corrugated Paperboard Boxes

Numerical modelling of corrugated paperboard is quite challenging due to its waved geometry and material non-linearity which is affected by the material properties of the individual paper sheets. Because of the complex geometry and material behaviour of the board, there is still scope to enhance the accuracy of current modelling techniques as well as gain a better understanding of the structural performance of corrugated paperboard packaging for improved packaging design. In this study, four-point bending tests were carried out to determine the bending stiffness of un-creased samples in the machine direction (MD) and cross direction (CD). Bending tests were also carried out on creased samples with the fluting oriented in the CD with the crease at the centre. Inverse analysis was applied using the results from the bending tests to determine the material properties that accurately predict the bending stiffness of the horizontal creases, vertical creases, and panels of a box under compression loading. The finite element model of the box was divided into three sections, the horizontal creases, vertical creases, and the box panels. Each of these sections is described using different material properties. The box edges/corners are described using the optimal material properties from bending and compression tests conducted on creased samples, while the box panels are described using the optimal material properties obtained from four-point bending tests conducted on samples without creases. A homogenised finite element (FE) model of a box was simulated using the obtained material properties and validated using experimental results. The developed FE model accurately predicted the failure load of a corrugated paperboard box under compression with a variation of 0.1% when compared to the experimental results.

ANN-Based Bridge Support Fixity Quantification Using Thermal Response Data from Real-Time Wireless Sensing.

Bridges are critical infrastructures that support our economic activities and daily lives. Aging bridges have been a major issue for decades, prompting researchers to improve resilience and performance through structural health monitoring. While most research focuses on superstructure damage, the majority of bridge failures are associated with support or joint damages, indicating the importance of bridge support. Indeed, bridge support affects the performance of both the substructure and superstructure by maintaining the load path and allowing certain movements to mitigate thermal and other stresses. The support deterioration leads to a change in fixity in the superstructure, compromising the bridge's integrity and safety. Hence, a reliable method to determine support fixity level is essential to detecting bearing health and enhancing the accuracy of the bridge health monitoring system. However, such research is lacking because of its complexity. In this study, we developed a support fixity quantification method based on thermal responses using an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model. A finite element (FE) model of a representative highway bridge is used to derive thermal displacement data under different bearing stiffnesses, superstructure damage, and thermal loading. The thermal displacement behavior of the bridge under different support fixity conditions is presented, and the model is trained on the simulated response. The performance of the developed FE model and ANN was validated with field monitoring data collected from two in-service bridges in Connecticut using a real-time Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). Finally, the support stiffnesses of both bridges were predicted using the ANN model for validation.

Numerical investigation and design methods of the local buckling of WAAM stainless steel circular hollow section stub columns

3D printing is an advanced technology that has been used in biomedical and automotive engineering, and has raised a significant response in civil engineering. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), a metal 3D printing technology, has prospective applications in steel construction because it can fabricate large-scale structural members at an acceptable cost and manufacturing efficiency. Fundamental studies are still urgently needed to realize its engineering application. However, due to the irregular geometric features, limited studies on the structural performance of WAAM components, particularly the numerical studies, have been carried out. To this end, a numerical investigation on the local buckling of WAAM stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) stub columns under axial compression has been conducted and presented herein. The finite element (FE) models were established and validated against the existing experimental research. Parametric studies were subsequently carried out to broaden the cross-sectional resistance data pool using the developed FE models. The applicability of the cross-section design provisions specified in EN 1993-1-4:2006 + A2:2020, ANSI/AISC 370-21 and the continuous strength method (CSM) for the design of WAAM CHS was evaluated according to the experimental and FE results. Furthermore, a modified design method with improved accuracy was suggested.

Numerical Analysis of Combined Effect Hybrid Fibres and Fire Insulation on the Fire Resistance Performance of SCC Beams

The use of self-compacting concrete in structural members has become increasingly prevalent in various construction applications. However, these structures are susceptible to one of the most hazardous disasters, which is the fire. This paper presents a numerical investigation of the fire resistance performance of self-compacting reinforced concrete (SCC) beams, as well as a parametric study to assess the impact of hybrid fibres and fire insulation on enhancing their performance under fire conditions. The study is conducted by developing a 3D finite element (FE) model using ANSYS software, where temperatures are applied according to the ISO834 standard fire. Geometric and material nonlinearities are considered in the evaluation of the behaviour of beams under fire conditions. The developed FE model is validated by comparing the predicted results with those of the experimental tests in literature. The fire resistance performance of SCC beams was compared with that of normal strength concrete (NSC) beams. The parametric study is conducted using three types of fire insulation, namely Tyfo WR-AFP, CAFCO 300, and Carboline Type-5MD. The results showed that SCC beam has lower fire resistance performance than the NSC beam. However, the incorporation of hybrid fibres allows a 17% improvement in the fire resistance of SCC beams. The use of fire insulations has increased the fire resistance time of SCC beams, and more particularly Carboline Type-5MD insulation with an increase of 28%. The combined use of hybrid fibres and fire insulation improved the fire resistance of SCC beams by 43%.

Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam

Abstract The aim of this study is to evaluate numerically the effects of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets strengthening on the flexural performance of high-strength concrete (HSC) beam using ABAQUS 3D finite element (FE) modeling software. The developed FE models were verified against the experimental results found in literature. The FE models can accurately estimate the performance of CFRP-strengthened high-strength reinforced concrete (RC) beams. Subsequent parametric analysis was performed to assess the performance of CFRP-strengthened concrete beams considering various parameters including compressive strength of concrete, CFRP width, thickness, length, number of CFRP layers, and CFRP strengthening schemes. Based on the results of FE analysis. It was demonstrated that using HSC significantly enhances the performance of CFRP-strengthened RC beams. It was also confirmed that width, thickness, and layer number of CFRP sheets improve the flexural behavior of CFRP-strengthened HSC beams by increasing the ultimate loads and strain-hardening behavior of the specimens. The strengthening schemes contribute to delaying or inhabiting the debonding especially when the CFRP sheets are added along the bottom of the beams. It was demonstrated that using CFRP sheets U-wrapping contributes to the prevention or delay of debonding and increases the capability of resisting the stress imposed on the concrete. Therefore, installing the CFRP sheets at the bottom face of beam below the tensile reinforcement enhances the performance of CFRP-strengthened HSC beams.

Coupled higher-order layerwise mechanics and finite element formulations for laminated composite beams with active SMA layers

This study proposes a thermo-elastic coupled nonlinear finite element (FE) model for laminated composite beams with active SMA layers based on a higher-order layerwise theory and Brinson's model of SMA's phase transformation constitutive relations. The developed FE Model is further discretized by using the Newton-Raphson time integration scheme to update SMA's phase transformation progress step by step. This new model can be used for thermal-mechanical behavior analysis of hybrid SMA-composite laminated beams, which especially enables accurate prediction for static response of moderately thick to thick beams, large deformation analysis, through-thickness variations of interlaminar stresses and strains. The accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed approach are verified by several numerical examples, and the results are compared with those obtained from corresponding alternative solutions and experimental tests. Using the developed FEM, the effects of temperature, geometrical nonlinearity, pre-strain of SMA, and stacking sequence of composite laminates on the static response of hybrid SMA-composite beams are studied.

Localized loading behavior of cold-formed stainless steel RHS under interior-one-flange load case at elevated temperatures

The localized loading behavior of cold-formed stainless steel (CFSS) rectangular hollow section (RHS) members at elevated temperatures is investigated in this paper. Fifteen localized loading tests conducted at various temperatures up to 800 °C were reported. The tests were carried out under the Interior-One-Flange (IOF) load case as specified in American Specification for the design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members. Tensile coupon tests were performed to obtain the material properties of the CFSS RHS at various temperatures. Detailed information on dimensions, temperature histories, failure modes, load-deformation curves, localized loading capacities of specimens at various temperatures were presented. In addition, a numerical investigation was supplemented, where a total of 192 finite element (FE) analyses were undertaken after validation of developed FE model against the elevated-temperature test results. The influence of various parameters on the localized loading capacities of CFSS RHS at different temperatures under IOF load case was revealed. The obtained results were utilized to assess the applicability of the localized loading design provision for CFSS RHS under IOF load case codified in the American Specification to elevated temperature conditions. Moreover, the results were also compared with predictions based on existing design rules in literatures for cold-formed RHS at elevated temperatures. Furthermore, reliability analyses were carried out to assess the reliability levels of the assessed design methods. It is shown that the existing design rules can generally provide conservative and reliable predictions of the localized loading capacities for the CFSS RHS under IOF load case at elevated temperatures.

Characterisation of human penile tissue properties using experimental testing combined with multi-target inverse finite element modelling

This paper presents an inverse finite element (FE) approach aimed at estimating multi-layered human penile tissues. The inverse FE approach integrates experimental force–displacement and boundary deformation data of penile tissues with a developed FE model and uses new experimental data on human penile tissue. The experimental study encompasses whole organ plate-compression tests and individual layer tensile and compression tests, providing comprehensive insights into the tissue's mechanical behaviour. The biomechanical characterisation of penile tissue is of crucial significance for understanding its mechanical behaviour under various physiological and pathological conditions. The FE model is constructed using the realistic geometry of the penile segment and appropriate constitutive models for each tissue layer to leverage the accuracy and consistency of the model. Through systematic variation of tissue parameters in the inverse FE algorithm, simulations achieve the best match with both force–displacement and deformed boundary results obtained from the whole organ plate-compression tests. Test results from individual tissue layers are also utilised to assess the estimated parameters. The proposed inverse FE approach allows for the estimation of penile tissue parameters with high precision and reliability, shedding light on the mechanical properties of this complex biological organ. This work has applications not only in urology but also for researchers in various disciplines of biomechanics. As a result, our study contributes to advancing the understanding of human penile tissue mechanics whilst the methodology could also be applied to a range of other soft biological tissues. Statement of significanceThis research uses a multi-target inverse finite element (FE) approach for estimating the material parameters of human penile tissues. By integrating experimental data and a realistic FE model, this study achieves high-precision constitutive model parameter estimation, offering key insights into penile tissue mechanics under various loading conditions. The significance of this work lies in the use of this inverse FE approach for fresh-frozen human penile tissues, to identify the mechanical properties and constitutive models for both segregated tunica albuginea and corpus cavernosum as well as intact penile tissue segments. The study's scientific impact lies in its advancement of the understanding of human urological tissue mechanics, impacting researchers and clinicians alike.

A guided wave propagation method for delamination detection in fiber-metal laminates

This study aimed to assess the delamination detection in FMLs via the finite element (FE) simulations of Lamb wave propagation. An FE model of an FML specimen with [Al/902/Al/902/Al] layup was developed. Delamination damage of 10 and 25 mm diameters was induced between different layers of the FML specimen. The fundamental antisymmetric Lamb wave mode (A0) at 60 kHz and the fundamental symmetric Lamb wave mode (S0) at the frequency of 206 kHz were propagated on the developed FE models. The Lamb wave phase velocity was obtained from the FE models and compared with those obtained from the Lamb wave propagation tests. The sensitivity of the A0 and S0 Lamb wave modes to the delamination and its diameter were examined. The inverse Lamb wave propagation problem was then solved, and the elastic modulus of the FML specimen was estimated in the intact and delamination regions. It was observed that the phase velocity of the S0 Lamb wave mode had a higher sensitivity to the delamination damage compared to that of the A0 Lamb wave mode. The phase velocity of the A0 Lamb wave mode was more sensitive to the delamination diameter. The capability of the proposed simulated Lamb wave propagation method as a virtual lab for detecting delamination in the FMLs was confirmed.

Simulation of ageing and wear effect on graphene THz passive components using finite element method

In the growing scenario of 2D material-based metamaterials and metasurfaces for Terahertz (THz) applications, assessing the impact of ageing and wear due to environmental stressors on the components’ performance is becoming mandatory to understand the long-term reliability of novel technologies. This paper introduces approaches to assess the ageing and wear effects on THz passive components through numerical simulations. For this purpose, common techniques for introducing 2D materials and thin metal layers in numerical models are discussed. As a case study, this work explores the effects of graphene degradation and reflective metal ageing on the electromagnetic response of a graphene-enhanced reflective grating for THz absorption and modulation by finite element (FE) analysis. The developed FE model is validated against experimental data obtained through THz Time-Domain Spectroscopy. By computing the device’s transmission, reflection, and absorption spectra for degrading graphene and metal conductive properties, this work provides insights into the influence of ageing and wear on THz passive components.

Estimation of load-carrying capacity of cracked RC beams using 3D digital twin model integrated with point clouds and images

Digital twin (DT) is capable of managing, simulating, and future performance prediction of existing infrastructures by integrating three-dimensional (3D) geometric model and finite element (FE) model. This study aims to automatically generate geometric DT of existing RC members using point clouds and incorporate damages detected from images into FE models. An edge-based modeling method was proposed to extract sharp features for geometry reconstruction with incomplete point clouds, and an automated procedure was established for registering images to point clouds, mapping cracks detected in images to FE models, and assigning reduced material properties. Four RC beams were tested in a laboratory to validate the proposed method. Existing cracks were found to have a significant effect on structural capacity and failure mode. The results also showed that the developed FE model produced a good agreement between experimental and predicted failure loads while providing a more efficient and time-saving assessment protocol.

Numerical investigation of bond-slip behaviour between CFRP strips and concrete in shear tests under static and blast loads

The paper is structured into two main sections. In the first part, the focus is on the finite element (FE) analysis of bond slip in a single bond shear test between concrete and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips under static loads. To model the test set-up, a plastic damage material model and an elastic material model are used for the concrete prism and the unidirectional CFRP strip respectively. Three approaches, including a perfect bond model, a cohesive bond model, and contact algorithms based on recent bond slip models, are employed to simulate the bond interface. The numerical model's validity is confirmed through comparison with experimental results from the literature. The paper predicts the debonding failure mode, the strain evolution along the bond length, and the delamination loads of the CFRP strip. The cohesive bond model exhibits good agreement between numerical and experimental data. In the second part of the paper, the developed FE model is tested under blast loading and compared to the experimental results of the blast tests conducted by the authors. The experimental and numerical findings highlight a significant dynamic enhancement effect on bond-slip properties due to the propagation of the blast wave within the concrete and the high loading rate.

Experimental and numerical investigation on residual stress and deformation of welded I-section curved steel beams

This paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation on welding-induced residual stresses and deformations of in-plane curved welded I-section steel beams. Two welded curved beams with different curvatures were investigated. After welding the curved beam, the residual deformations were measured by a 3D scanner. The residual stresses were subsequently obtained through a high-precision sectioning method. The effects of curvature on the magnitude and distributions of residual deformations and stresses at the specific sections were analysed with the test results. It was found that the residual deformation gradually increased from the weld region to both ends of the flange plate, and the torsion in the web plate became severe with a decrease in curvature of the curved beam. Moreover, the welding process of the curved beam was simulated using the finite element (FE) method. The developed FE model was validated against the test results, and thereafter, parametric analyses were conducted to assess the influence of welding sequence, welding speed, and curvatures of the curved beam on the welding residual stresses and deformations. The numerical results demonstrated that the residual stresses and deformations were significantly influenced by welding speeds, but the influence from curvature of the curved beam was relatively small. Finally, a reasonable welding sequence, welding speed, and curvature of the curved beams were recommended.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Lateral Performance of Innovative Post in Sand

Under environmental loads such as wind and earthquakes, piles are subjected to large lateral loads. A foundation system denoted Innovative Post (IP) that is composed of an H-pile shaft and one or two steel plates (paddles) welded to its flanges, has been developed to resist large lateral loads on sound wall systems. The present study evaluates the performance of IP installed in layered cohesionless soils through a comprehensive full-scale lateral load testing program and finite element (FE) analysis considering various pile and plate configurations. The developed FE model was validated employing the field test data and was then employed to conduct a parametric study to evaluate the performance of IP considering different paddles geometry (i.e., number of paddles, single or double, width, and length). The results demonstrated that adding the plates significantly increased the lateral capacity of H-piles. A positive relationship was identified between paddle’s width and length and the load efficiency. Optimal parameter values for paddles are established based on the experimental and numerical results proposed.

Sustainability and Resiliency Investigation of Grouted Coupler Embedded in RC ABC Bridge Pier at Vehicle Impact

Increased occurrences of natural and man-made dynamic loading caused by high strain rate dynamic impact load have been recently reported. Different statistical results indicate that vehicular impacts occur more frequently compared to the other dynamic loads. However, existing literature primarily focuses on enhancing survivability and determining damage levels specifically in relation to faster bridge construction methods used as an accelerated bridge construction (ABC). In this context, the present study investigates the dynamic behavior of a commonly used connection type in ABC, namely grouted coupler that connects pre-cast elements like bridge piers and foundations. To execute the research, both the static and dynamic performance of grouted couplers embedded in pier foundation subjected to high strain rate loading incurred by high velocity vehicular impact are examined. A representative non-traditional reinforced concrete (RC) bridge pier is selected for the study with the standardized geometry and selected material properties. The use of splice sleeves as coupler materials and specified cross-sectional hollow cast iron cylinders filled with high strength concrete grout is employed for developing Finite Element (FE) modeling, extracting data from published journals. A commercial software, ANSYS, has been utilized to develop FE models to capture post impact respective static and dynamic behaviors, and the simulation results are then compared with the analytical. This also includes determining material performance via FE simulations. By considering dynamic loading, the dynamic impact factor (DIF) has been evaluated for the reinforcing steel bar adjacent and embedded into the coupler. In addition, dynamic simulations, and material modulus in demand to sustain impact are determined. Thus, the research necessitates mesh-independent sensitivity studies to investigate DIF corresponding to the precise outcomes. The findings of this study manifests valuable information that aids to opt for the suitable coupler connections, considering material properties, and adequate post impact execution. Consequently, it will serve as a useful design tool for design offices, structural practitioners, and forensic structural engineers.

Custom orthotic design by integrating 3D scanning and subject-specific FE modelling workflow

The finite element (FE) foot model can help estimate pathomechanics and improve the customized foot orthoses design. However, the procedure of developing FE models can be time-consuming and costly. This study aimed to develop a subject-specific scaled foot modelling workflow for the foot orthoses design based on the scanned foot surface data. Six participants (twelve feet) were collected for the foot finite element modelling. The subject-specific surface-based finite element model (SFEM) was established by incorporating the scanned foot surface and scaled foot bone geometries. The geometric deviations between the scaled and the scanned foot surfaces were calculated. The SFEM model was adopted to predict barefoot and foot-orthosis interface pressures. The averaged distances between the scaled and scanned foot surfaces were 0.23 ± 0.09 mm. There was no significant difference for the hallux, medial forefoot, middle forefoot, midfoot, medial hindfoot, and lateral hindfoot, except for the lateral forefoot region (p = 0.045). The SFEM model evaluated slightly higher foot-orthoses interface pressure values than measured, with a maximum deviation of 7.1%. These results indicated that the SFEM technique could predict the barefoot and foot-orthoses interface pressure, which has the potential to expedite the process of orthotic design and optimization.Graphical abstract