Detonation Wave Propagation Research Articles

Numerical research on flow field structure and droplets distribution of kerosene-fueled rotating detonation ramjet engine

In order to reveal the multiphase flow field structure and fuel droplets distribution under rotating detonation ramjet engine fueled by liquid kerosene, non-premixed simulations coupled with an Euler-Lagrangian approach is adopted. Supersonic air is used as oxidizer and the total pressure and total temperature at the entrance of isolation are set as 1.2 MPa and 1100 K, respectively, with a Mach number of 1.9. It is shown that a single-wave is formed and typical rotating detonation wave structures are established under two different orifice spacing conditions, namely 2 mm and 6mm. A "rich oil and poor oxygen band" is formed and attributed to the inconsistent supply of fuel and air after the passage of the detonation wave. When the orifices spacing is increased from 2 mm to 6 mm, both obvious strips after the detonation wave and “n-type” deflagration structures near the contact surface are observed. Besides, the detonation wave front becomes discontinuous, as well as from the deflagration heat release distribution. Despite of the effect of the circumferential propagation of detonation wave, kerosene droplets still propagate mainly along the downstream direction. However, Kerosene droplets distribution shows obvious difference along the detonation wave propagation direction.

Investigation on the integrated characteristics of n-decane/air rotating detonation combustor and supersonic turbine

In this study, the two-dimensional numerical simulations are conducted to study the flow field characteristics, turbine performance and loss mechanism of integrated system of rotating detonation combustor and supersonic turbine under two different directions of detonation wave propagation. The results indicate that the propagation direction of RDW affects the incident angle between OSW and guide vanes, resulting in different operating modes for aligned and unaligned modes. OSW in the turbine cascade undergoes the leading-edge shock, blade surface reflection and trailing edge diffraction. The backward-propagating rake-type shock envelope is formed due to leading-edge shock of the rotor. In misaligned mode, the stator has higher damping of both pressure and temperature. The stator significantly improves the circumferential uniformity of both velocity and pressure, particularly when operating in aligned mode. The total pressure loss in aligned mode is less, therefore the turbine achieves higher rim work and efficiency. The viscosity is one of the main sources of loss in the flow field. The reflected shock waves at the leading edge of the rotor and in the stator cascade are the primary factors contributing to the leading-edge vortices on the stator vanes.

Numerical Study of Detonation Waves in Gas Suspensions with Spatially Inhomogeneous Particle Concentration Distribution in Sharply Expanding Pipes

The article presents some results of a numerical study of detonation waves in gas suspensions with a spatially inhomogeneous distribution of particle concentration in sharply expanding pipes obtained by the large particle method. The purpose of the research is to study the influence of pipeline geometry and longitudinally spatially inhomogeneous distribution of particle concentration on the propagation of detonation waves in gas suspensions. It is shown that the size of the narrow and wide parts of the pipeline, as well as, the spatially inhomogeneous distribution of particle concentrations, qualitatively and quantitatively affect this process. Three detonation modes have been identified: continuous wave propagation, complete cessation, and partial disruption with subsequent recovery. It has been established that, at a fixed total mass of suspension, a layer with a linearly decreasing law of change in the concentration of unitary fuel particles better attenuates detonation waves than with a linearly increasing and homogeneous one.

The Effects of Material‐Filled Voids on Detonation Wave Shape in Rubberized RDX Explosives

AbstractThe sensitivity of explosives is affected by inhomogeneities within the material. This is evident in the increased shock sensitivity of explosives with slightly lower densities resulting from an increased number of hotspots. The influence of hotspots on explosive initiation has been well studied; however, few studies have been conducted on the effect of intermediate‐sized voids (0.1–10 mm) on a propagating detonation wave. Cylindrical voids filled with air have been studied for diameters ranging from 0.3 mm to 0.8 mm for both 1,3,5,7‐tetranitro‐1,3,5,7‐tetrazocane (HMX) and 1,3,5‐trinitro‐1,3,5‐triazinane (RDX)‐based rubberized explosives. Continuing the investigation into single cylindrical voids, this study examined the effects of 0.5 mm diameter voids filled with different inert cylindrical metals on the detonation wave shape for an RDX‐based rubberized explosive. The metals selected for experiments were 1066 aluminum, brass, copper, and tungsten. The propagation of the detonation wave was captured using a digital streak camera. Experimental results showed that the extent of detonation wave shaping was closely tied to the density differential between the bulk explosive and metal insert. Forty‐four different filler materials, including non‐metals, were simulated using a hydrodynamic code to further analyze material inclusion effects. The main factors hypothesized to be of interest were bulk sound speed, shock impedance, and filler material density. We found that the local detonation delay could be correlated fairly well to a ratio of bulk sound speed and density. Understanding the influence of material inclusions on detonation performance and wave shape allows for tailoring of detonations.

Experimental investigation on propagation characteristics of rotating detonation wave fueled by diesel

Diesel fuel plays an indispensable role in the energy power sector. Detonation is a self-pressurizing combustion mode that can improve the utilization efficiency of diesel fuel. Through experiments, this paper explored the propagation characteristics of diesel/air RDWs within three different air-inlet slot width structures. A total of 24 high-pressure atomizing nozzles were evenly distributed circumferentially to inject diesel fuel into the combustor. The air, preheated by a heater, was injected into the combustor through the air-inlet slot. The results demonstrate the successful achievement of diesel/air rotating detonation under three different air-inlet slot width structures. As the width increases, the range of operating conditions for achieving detonation becomes more limited. As the air temperature rises, so does the detonation wave's propagation velocity, reaching up to 79 % of the theoretical CJ value. Both single-wave and two-wave collision modes were obtained in the experiments, with a constantly shifting collision point of the two-wave mode, forming the drift phenomenon. The establishment time for the detonation wave is comparatively short, ranging from 2.0 to 5.5 ms, and is minimally affected by the air-inject slot width and the total air temperature. The two-wave collision mode evolved from the single-wave form.

Advancing instantaneous detonation prediction of condensed energetic materials based on high-order compressible multiphase fluid dynamics

The instantaneous detonation model (IDM) is widely used in simulating underwater explosions due to its efficiency and ability to ignore the detonation reaction process. In this study, we propose a new IDM to predict the fluid structure in the detonation zone of an RS211 explosive charge. This model is based on high-order solutions provided by the detonation shock dynamics model, where the spatial term is discretized using fifth-order WENO reconstruction in characteristic space and Lax–Friedrichs’s splitting and the temporal terms are discretized using a third-order TVD Runge–Kutta scheme. The interface motion is captured using the level-set method combined with MGFM, and a programmed burn model is provided to describe the generation and propagation of the detonation wave. The self-similarity of detonation wave propagation is validated, and the quantitative calculation formula of the instantaneous detonation model is obtained by averaging or curve fitting the dimensionless results. Consequently, the IDM of the RS211 charge is established using high-order polynomial approximations of the Taylor rarefaction zone and a constant static zone for 1D planar, cylindrical, and spherical RS211 charges. The application of the IDM involves direct mapping from the radial direction to the spatial structured grid for 1D planar, 2D cylindrical, and 3D spherical charges. Numerical results demonstrate that the IDM proposed in this paper shows good accuracy and high computational efficiency.

Space–time adaptive ADER-DG finite element method with LST-DG predictor and a posteriori sub-cell ADER-WENO finite-volume limiting for multidimensional detonation waves simulation

The space–time adaptive ADER–DG finite element method with LST–DG predictor and a posteriori sub–cell ADER–WENO finite–volume limiting was used for simulation of multidimensional reacting flows with detonation waves. The presented numerical method does not use any ideas of splitting or fractional time steps methods. The modification of the LST–DG predictor has been developed, based on a local partition of the time step in cells in which strong reactivity of the medium is observed. This approach made it possible to obtain solutions to classical problems of flows with detonation waves and strong stiffness, without significantly decreasing the time step. The results obtained show the very high applicability and efficiency of using the ADER–DG–PN method with a posteriori sub–cell limiting for simulating reactive flows with detonation waves. The numerical solution shows the correct formation and propagation of ZND detonation waves. The structure of detonation waves is resolved by this numerical method with subcell resolution even on coarse spatial meshes. The smooth components of the numerical solution are correctly and very accurately reproduced by the numerical method. Non–physical artifacts of the numerical solution, typical for problems with detonation waves, such as the propagation of non–physical shock waves and weak detonation fronts ahead of the main detonation front, did not arise in the results obtained. The results of simulating rather complex problems associated with the propagation of detonation waves in significantly inhomogeneous domains are presented, which show that all the main features of detonation flows are correctly reproduced by this numerical method. It can be concluded that the space–time adaptive ADER–DG–PN method with LST–DG predictor and a posteriori sub–cell ADER–WENO finite–volume limiting is perfectly applicable to simulating fairly complex reacting flows with detonation waves.

Effects of porous wall on deflagration to detonation transition and detonation wave propagation

Effects of porous wall on deflagration to detonation transition and detonation wave propagation

Overlapping effect of detonation driving during multi-point initiation

Employing multi-point initiation in warhead structures produces a detonation wave aiming warhead. Numerous studies have concentrated on enhancing the velocity and analyzing its distribution in this type of warhead. Researchers have developed formulas for the velocity distribution of asymmetrically one-line initiated warheads; however, a reliable and complete calculation method for the velocity distribution in asymmetrically two-line initiated warheads is yet to be established. A new idea is proposed and verified in this work: the velocity distribution for the asymmetric two-line initiation can be derived from that of the one-line initiation. Initial efforts include conducting experimentally verified numerical modeling to examine the propagation and interaction of detonation waves in asymmetrically two-line initiated warheads. Subsequently, using the principle of independent propagation, a model is formulated to use the velocity distribution from asymmetric one-line initiation to predict that of asymmetric two-line initiations. Finally, arena tests are performed to corroborate the overlapping model. This research can provide valuable insights for lethality assessment, protection design, and security analysis.

Stereoscopic cells of three-dimensional detonation waves propagating in square ducts

The present study delves into the examination of the stereoscopic cells and wavefront structures characterizing the propagation of three-dimensional detonation waves within square ducts. Leveraging numerical solutions derived from three-dimensional reactive Euler equations, incorporating an induction-exothermic reaction kinetic model, this work reveals the distinct classification of three modes of detonation waves based on the direction of propagation and the phase characteristics of transverse shock waves on the wavefront. This paper delineates the presence of two different types of phenomena: duct wall slapping waves due to shock–wall collisions and internal slapping waves resulting from shock interactions. Furthermore, this investigation exposes the existence of two distinct types of triple-wave lines on the wavefront: the first comprising a strong Mach disk, a weak Mach disk, and a transverse shock wave; the second characterized by a weak Mach disk, an incident shock wave, and a transverse shock wave. Notably, the pressure behind the first type of triple-wave line is observed to be the highest. It elucidates the transition from two- to three-dimensional detonation waves, revealing that the prevalence of transverse shock waves on the wavefront in the rectangular and diagonal modes is twofold and quadruple, respectively, when compared to their two-dimensional counterparts within identical ducts/channels.

Influence of fuel inhomogeneity on detonation wave propagation in a rotating detonation combustor

Rotating detonation combustor (RDC) is a form of pressure gain combustion, which is thermodynamically more efficient than the traditional constant-pressure combustors. In most RDCs, the fuel–air mixture is not perfectly premixed and results in inhomogeneous mixing within the domain. Due to discrete fuel injection locations, local pockets of rich and lean mixtures are formed in the refill region. The objective of the present work is to gain an understanding of the effects of reactant mixture inhomogeneity on detonation wave structure, wave velocity, and pressure profile. To study the effect of mixture inhomogeneity, probability density functions of fuel mass fractions are generated with varying standard deviations. These distributions of fuel mass fractions are incorporated in 2D reacting simulations as a spatially/temporally varying inlet boundary condition. Using this methodology, the effect of mixture inhomogeneity is independently investigated to determine the effects on detonation wave propagation and RDC performance. As mixture inhomogeneity is increased, detonation wave speed, detonation efficiency, and potential for pressure gain all decrease, ultimately leading to the separation of the reaction zone from the shock wave.

Pressure Characteristics and Secondary Ignition Effects of Gas Produced in RDE Using Lignite and Anthracite/CH4 Fuel.

This study aims to address the energy efficiency release and environmental impact of coal dust in rotating detonation engines (RDEs) by monitoring the detonation characteristics of lignite and anthracite in methane gas-solid mixtures using high-precision sensor technology. Experimental results indicate that the peak detonation pressure of anthracite is 1.4% higher than that of lignite, and its detonation wave propagation speed is at least 5.5% faster, suggesting that anthracite exhibits more stable and efficient fuel energy release characteristics during detonation. Additionally, the sensor technology enabled detailed recording of pressure fluctuations and gas composition changes during the detonation process, providing accurate data for assessing and controlling emissions of harmful gases such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. These data are crucial for designing more efficient and environmentally friendly coal dust detonation systems, enhancing mine safety and environmental protection. The outcomes of this research not only advance technological progress in the field of energy science but also address efficiency and environmental issues in industrial applications, offering significant support for achieving safer and more sustainable energy production methods.

The effect of CO content on CH4/CO/H2 rotating detonation wave propagation characteristics

Rotating detonation experiments were conducted using CH4/CO/H2 (methane/carbon monoxide/hydrogen) mixtures with varying CO contents, the modes of rotating detonation wave (RDW) propagation in the mixtures were analyzed, and the impact of CO content on the propagation characteristics of the RDW in the gas mixture was compared. Three propagation modes of RDW were observed: sawtooth wave mode, mixed mode, and single wave mode. An increase in the CO content resulted in an upward shift in the range of working equivalence ratios for different gas mixtures. Additionally, the propagation modes of the same gas mixture change with increased fuel flow rate. When the equivalence ratio is below 1.13, it is observed that the gas mixture with the lowest CO content exhibits the highest RDW velocity and the shortest time required to establish RDW. This was attributed to the higher content of oxygen-containing functional groups, such as OH (hydroxyl), HO2 (peroxyhydroxyl), and O (oxygen atom), which were present under lean combustion conditions, along with the highest mass content of H2 in the gas mixture with the lowest CO content. Conversely, for equivalence ratios above 1.13, it is observed that the gas mixture with the highest CO content exhibits the highest propagation velocity and the shortest time required to establish RDW. This was attributed to the lowest mass content of CH4 and H2 in the gas mixture with the highest CO content at the same equivalence ratio, along with the inhibitory effect of elevated CO content on CH4 consumption under fuel-rich combustion conditions. The increase in the CO content resulted in maximum propagation velocities of the detonation wave being achieved for the three gas mixtures at equivalence ratios of 0.91, 1.09, and 1.19, with corresponding velocities of 1136.7, 1108.7, and 1113.2 m/s, and the shortest times required to establish RDW were measured at 1.5, 1.1, and 0.8 ms for the respective mixtures.

Real Gas Effect on Motion of Self-gravitating Cylindrical Detonation Waves

Abstract: The effect of real gas on the adiabatic propagation of strong cylindrical imploding detonation waves in the nonhomogeneous medium having power varying density distribution. Ignoring the effect of overtaking disturbances the CCW solution has been obtained for the problem at the detonation waves are initially in Chapman-Jouguet state. The analytical expressions for the detonation velocity just behind the front along with other flow variables are derived. The expressions for the freely propagating velocity of detonation front are derived. Using the jump condition across the strong detonation front, the numerical values of the pressure and density across the front have been computed with the help of the software MATLAB. It is observed that the variation of flow parameters with convergence of detonation front is depend upon the change in Alfven Mach number, the parameters of realness of the gas and initial density distribution. Finally, it is found that change in parameter of realness of the medium plays an important role on the post flow variables. The effect of change in Alfven Mach number and density parameter is also discussed through graphs. The outcome of the present study is compared with the results for the case of ideal reacting gas.

Time/frequency domain analysis of detonation wave propagation mechanism in a linear rotating detonation combustor

Controlling the rotating detonation combustor (RDC) is crucial for enhancing propulsion system safety, efficiency, and overall performance. Swift and precise identification of the operational mode of RDC is of great significance for refining the propulsion dynamics of detonation-based technologies. In this study, two-dimensional numerical simulations are performed to investigate time-domain characteristics and frequency-domain characteristics of various operational modes of the RDC, hydrogen–air mixtures are used as fuel, and fast Fourier transformation (FFT) is applied to the analysis of frequency-domain. The alteration of the RDC operational mode is achieved through adjustments to the chemical equivalent ratio (ER) of the fuel, spanning from 0.52 to 3.50. Our findings reveal four distinct operational modes within this equivalent ratio range: ignition failure (ER ≤ 0.52 and ER ≥ 3.50), collision failure (ER = 0.85, 1.60 and 1.65), single wave (0.53 ≤ ER ≤ 0.80 and 1.70 ≤ ER ≤ 3.40) and multiple wave mode (0.90 ≤ ER ≤ 1.50). For the ignition failure mode, the detonation waves in RDC decouple from the flame and fail after ignition. In the collision failure mode, the inability of detonation waves to propagate sustainably within the RDC is evident. Frequency-domain analysis underscores the significance of a characteristic low-frequency (0.3 kHz) in distinguishing this mode from others. For single wave mode, it represents the steady and continuous propagation of a detonation wave in the RDC. Frequency-domain analysis reveals characteristic frequencies approximately equal to integer multiples of the propagation frequency (fD), where fD ∼ 10fD serves as the primary characteristic frequencies. The multiple wave mode can be categorized into two subtypes: the forward and reverse single detonation waves appear alternately or the forward and reverse single detonation waves finally co-direction double detonation waves. In the former subtype, characteristic frequencies are integer multiples of the fD, but the amplitude distribution is different with single wave mode. In contrast, primary characteristic frequencies of the latter subtype are fD ∼ 4fD, accompanied by two adjacent characteristic frequencies near each integer multiples of fD. These findings promise advancements in the controllability of RDC and lay the foundations for the development of RDC control systems.

Effects of the droplet size and engine size on two-phase kerosene/air rotating detonation engines in flight operation conditions

The numerical and experimental research of rotating detonation engines is usually conducted in ground environmental conditions. Although many breakthroughs have been made, there are still deficiencies in understanding engines operating in real flight conditions. In order to reveal the effect of engine size and initial kerosene droplet size on the rotating detonation engines in flight conditions, the Eulerian-Lagrangian model is adopted, and a series of two-phase kerosene/air rotating detonation cases are simulated in the conditions of Mach 5 and 24 km altitude. When 5 μm and 10 μm droplets are adopted, the RDE behaves like gaseous rotating detonations with clear cellular structures. When the 20 μm and 30 μm droplets are adopted, the rotating detonation waves tend to be divided into two layers and form the λ-shaped shock structure. The results indicate that droplet size and engine size influence detonation wave propagation and flow field mainly through droplet heat absorption and evaporation height. Increasing the engine sizes can promote the two-phase rotating detonation and broaden the initial diameter range capable of obtaining rotating detonation waves. However, as droplet size increases, the fresh mixture layer becomes stratified, with an upper layer predominantly comprising fuel vapor and a lower layer of fuel droplets, which results in an λ-shaped shock structure at the detonation front. The flight operation condition brings in differences in features such as detonation wave height and velocity deficit. The detonation height in flight conditions is higher than that in ground conditions. The most velocity deficit in flight conditions observed in our study is below 15 %, which is lower than the results (22.5 %) in ground operating conditions. These results indicate that the optimal design of the rotating detonation engine must consider the real operation conditions and the effect of engine sizes and droplet sizes.

Effect of the inlet spatial fluctuation on the gas–solid continuous rotating detonation flow field characteristics

Continuous rotating detonation engines have been extensively studied due to their high thermal efficiency. The utilization of solid particles as fuel can effectively reduce costs and enhance detonation performance. We have constructed a compressible gas–solid multimedium flow combustion numerical method, employing the double flux model coupled with fifth-order weighted essentially non-oscillatory and third-order total variation diminishing Runge–Kutta schemes to solve the unsteady multi-component chemical reaction Eulerian–Eulerian equations. Finite-rate methods and surface reaction models are used to simulate the combustion of gaseous mixtures and carbon particles. The effects of the inlet total pressure spatial fluctuations and particle diameter on the flow field characteristics of the continuous rotating detonation engine are investigated. The results indicate that changing the fluctuation period significantly affects the number, propagation direction, and intensity of gas–solid two-phase continuous rotating detonation waves (CRDW). The variation of fluctuation amplitude noticeably alters the combustion characteristics of the two-phase continuous rotating detonation wave, and excessively high amplitudes cannot form continuous rotating detonation waves. Introducing solid particles into fuel significantly mitigates the impact of inlet total pressure spatial fluctuation and promotes propagation stability on the detonation waves. Moreover, when solid particle diameters reach or exceed the micrometer scale, they contribute more favorably to generating a stable detonation flow field. However, excessive particle sizes result in a low surface reaction rate and inadequate contribution of heat released from particle combustion to the propagation of detonation waves.

Development of Node-centered finite-volume diffusion method on triangle mesh for detonation propagation simulation in insensitive high explosives

This study presents a numerical simulation of detonation waves in insensitive high explosives (IHE). A direct numerical simulation (DNS) method of detonation waves propagation was developed. It solves two-dimensional reactive Euler equations by using a semi-discrete node-centered finite-volume (NCFV) scheme on triangle mesh. Employing ZND model analytical solution as the initial condition, the upper and lower boundary conditions were designed as local sonic equilibrium conditions. The DNS method was validated using steady detonation wave propagation experimental results for tri-amino-tri-nitro-benzene (TATB) based explosives. The two-dimensional steady detonation propagation of the circular arc experiments was completed using a non-embedded technique (electric and optical fibre probe velocimetry). The comparison results demonstrate that the numerical method can provide a good prediction of the pseudo-steady-state detonation wave front propagation and the angular speed.

Influence and comparison of cylindrical engineered defects on detonation waveshape in a rubberized RDX explosive

AbstractInhomogeneities within explosives affect the sensitivity and detonation waveshape of energetic materials. The influence of voids on explosive initiation has been well documented; however, the effects that voids between 0.1 mm and 10 mm have on a propagating detonation wave remains largely unexplored. The effect of single cylindrical voids on detonation waveshape and re‐initiation was examined here using manufactured voids in a rubberized 1,3,5‐trinitro‐1,3,5‐triazinane (RDX) explosive. Two streak imaging techniques were fielded to investigate void influence. For the first, back‐surface streak imaging, the location of the void on the samples was changed and the resulting change in detonation waveshape at the downstream breakout was captured using a streak camera in cut‐back experiments. The results from this experiment showed the effects of an initial jet form for short cut‐back distances and as shock propagation progressed, the jet formation was absorbed by the unaffected portions of the wave front. The second method, top‐surface streak imaging, was used to investigate the re‐initiation/downstream propagation of the detonation front and the detonation velocity of the rubberized explosive. These experiments were compared to similar experimental results from machined voids in PBX 9501, an 1,3,5,7‐tetranitro‐1,3,5,7‐tetrazocane (HMX)‐based explosive, to investigate the interaction of a detonation wave with a 0.5 mm void for different explosives. The experiments were also compared to simulations using a multi‐dimensional and multi‐material hydrodynamic code. These results showed the influence that small features can have on detonation waveshaping and how explosive properties play a key role in that interaction.

Study on the detonation wave propagation of shaped charge with three-layer liner and its driving characteristics to liner

With the continuous improvement of various armor protection technologies, the armor protection performance has increased significantly, and then the damage performance requirements of armor-piercing ammunition have also increased. In order to improve the penetration ability of the liner, a new three-layer liner structure is designed in this paper. The jet forming process was simulated by AUTODYN software. The mechanism of shaped jet forming of three-layer liner was studied. The reason why the penetration depth of three-layer liner was higher than that of ordinary liner was explained. The influence of three-layer liner on the propagation of detonation wave and the change of pressure when detonation wave acted on liner were found, which provided a new idea for improving the penetration depth of jet. The influence of liner material, cone angle and stand-off on jet forming and penetration was also studied by orthogonal optimization experiment, and the structural parameters with the best penetration performance were obtained. The results show that the pressure at the convergence point increases first and then decreases during the formation of the jet of the three-layer liner. The pressure at the convergence point when the three-layer liner material is from low impedance to high impedance from the outside to the inside is much larger than the pressure at the convergence point from high impedance to low impedance. When the three-layer liner material is Al 2024-Copper–Tantalum from the outside to the inside, the pressure at the convergence point of the three-layer liner at different times is higher than that of the double-layer liner and the single-layer liner. Reasonable matching of different impact impedance materials in the three-layer liner can greatly improve the pressure value of the detonation wave acting on the cone liner. The maximum pressure at the convergence point on the axis is 39.10 GPa, which is 22.00% higher than that of the double-layer liner at the convergence point, and 53.03% higher than that of the single-layer liner at the convergence point. The orthogonal design test scheme is simulated and analyzed. The penetration depth is taken as the observation index, and the range analysis is adopted. The results show that the material matching of the three-layer liner has the greatest influence on the depth of the jet penetrating the target plate, followed by the cone angle of the three-layer liner. Relatively speaking, the stand-off has the least influence on the result. Reasonable matching of materials with different impact impedances in the three-layer liner can maximize the penetration depth of the jet into the target plate.