Determinants Of Low Birth Weight Research Articles

Determinants of low birth weight and its effect on childhood health and nutritional outcomes in Bangladesh

BackgroundThe high incidence of low birth weight (LBW) is associated with an increased risk of infant mortality, adverse pregnancy outcomes for mothers, and a decline in overall health and well-being. The current study aimed to identify the various determinants of LBW and its effect on adverse health and nutritional outcomes of children aged 0–23 months in Bangladesh.MethodsBangladesh Demography and Health Survey (BDHS) 2017-18 data was used. A chi-square test and multivariable logistic regression analysis were used to find out the associations between independent variables and outcomes (e.g., LBW, child illness and undernutrition).ResultsThe overall prevalence of LBW among was 16.3%. Mother with no formal education (AOR = 2.64, 95% CI = 0.55–3.30, p = 0.01), female child (AOR = 1.31, 95% CI = 1.04–1.65, p = 0.023); and poorest economic status (AOR = 1.69, 95% CI = 1.13–2.51, p = 0.010), were identified significant determinants of LBW. Of home environment and hygiene factors, unimproved toilet facilities (AOR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.03–1.84, p = 0.030) had a significant effect on LBW. In addition, children born with LBW were more likely to suffer fever (AOR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.05–1.60, p = 0.050), stunting (AOR = 2.42, 95% CI = 1.86–3.15, p = < 0.001), wasting (AOR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.02–2.25 p = 0.049), and underweight (AOR = 3.19, 95% CI = 2.40–4.23, p = < 0.001).ConclusionOne out of five children was LBW in Bangladesh. Maternal education, sex of child, wealth index, and toilet facilities had significant effects on LBW. In addition, LWB contributed to children’s poor health and nutritional outcomes. Enhancing maternal pregnancy, and child health outcomes necessitates policies addressing poverty, gender inequality, and social disparities. Key strategies include promoting regular prenatal care, early medical intervention, reproductive health education, and safe hygiene practices. To combat the negative impacts of LBW, a comprehensive strategy is vital, encompassing exclusive breastfeeding, nutritional support, growth monitoring, accessible healthcare, and caregiver education.

Determinants of low birth weight among newborns delivered in public hospitals of North Shewa Zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia: A case-control study (2023).

Low birth weight (LBW), defined as a birth weight less than 2500 g, irrespective of gestational age, poses a significant health concern for newborns. Despite efforts, the incidence of LBW in sub-Saharan Africa has remained stagnant over the past decade, warranting attention from healthcare providers, policymakers, and researchers. This study aimed to identify factors associated with LBW among newborns delivered in public hospitals of North Shewa Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia, from May 2 to June 10, 2023. An unmatched case-control study was conducted from May 2 to June 10, 2023, involving 318 participants (106 cases and 212 controls). Data were collected using pretested interviewer-administered structured questionnaires, medical record reviews, and direct anthropometric measurements. Bivariate analyses were conducted, and variables with a p-value ≤ 0.25 were included in a multivariable logistic regression model to determine significant determinants of LBW. A significance level of p < 0.05 was used. A total of 309 newborns (103 cases and 206 controls) were included, yielding a response rate of 97.2%. Among the findings, females exhibited a higher risk of LBW (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 3.13, 95% CI: 1.34, 7.32, p = 0.008), as did mothers aged 20 or younger (AOR: 3.42, 95% CI: 1.35, 8.66, p = 0.009). Lack of formal education was associated with increased risk (AOR: 6.82, 95% CI: 2.94, 15.3, p < 0.001), as were unplanned pregnancies (AOR: 3.08, 95% CI: 1.38, 6.84, p = 0.006) and missed antenatal care visits (AOR: 2.74, 95% CI: 1.16, 6.49, p = 0.021). No significant associations were found with residency type or maternal age above 35. Mothers aged ≤ 20 years, with inadequate minimum dietary diversity, lack of antenatal care attendance, and unplanned pregnancies, faced heightened risks of LBW. Addressing these factors is vital for reducing LBW occurrences and improving newborn health outcomes in Ethiopia.

Prevalence and Determinants of Low Birth Weight among the Newborns in Dadra and Nagar Haveli: A Community-based Study.

The world is not on track to meet the World Health Assembly (WHA) global target on Low Birth Weight (LBW). To estimate the prevalence and to identify the associated determinants of LBW among the newborns. We conducted a cross-sectional study among the 364 mothers registered under the all government health facilities of Dadra & Nagar Haveli (DNH) during November 2021 to January 2022. The prevalence of LBW was found to be 39%. On uni-variable logistic regression, live in relationship, caste, weight of mother, Body Mass Index (BMI), weight gain <5 kg in 2nd and 3rd trimester, high-risk pregnancy, complication present in previous pregnancy and preterm delivery, while on multi-variable logistic regression, weight gain <5 kg in 2nd and 3rd trimester (AOR 2, 95% CI 1.007-4.2) and having high-risk pregnancy (AOR 2, 95% CI 1.1-3.0) were found to be the significant predictors of LBW among the newborns. We conclude from the study that the prevalence of low birth weight among the newborn was high. There is a need to address maternal and child health issues like low birth weight, malnutrition and high-risk pregnancy under the RMNCAH+N program through various effective interventions. Future research should evaluate the feasibility of collaborative activities between RMNCAH+N program and the UNICEF in India.

Determinants of low birth weight among newborns delivered at Mettu Karl comprehensive specialized hospital, southwest Ethiopia: a case–control study

Low birth weight is a newborn delivered with birth weight of less than 2500 g regardless of gestational age is called. It is a significant issue affecting over 30 million infants worldwide. Thus, the study determine factors associated with low birth weight among newborns delivered at Mettu Karl Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Southwest Ethiopia. A facility-based case–control study was conducted with 336 newborns (112 cases and 224 controls) from September 12 to December 23, 2022. The study population was newborns with birth weights of 2500 g to 4000 g as controls and newborns with birth weights < 2500 g were cases. Simple random sampling techniques were used to recruit study participants with a ratio of 1 to 3 cases to controls, respectively. Data was collected by interviews and a checklist. Data were entered and analysed using SPSS version 23. Binary and multivariate logistic regression analyses were computed to identify factors associated with low birth weight, a p-value less than 0.05 was used to declare the strength of statistical significance. A total of 327 newborns were contacted, yielding a 97% response rate. MUAC < 23 cm (AOR = 2.72, 95% CI 1.24 to 6.19), inadequate diet diversification (AOR = 4.19, 95% CI 2.04 to 8.60), lack of iron and folic acid supplementation (AOR = 2.94, 95% CI 1.25 to 6.88), history of hypertension (AOR = 2.55, 95% CI 1.09 to 6.00), and lack of nutritional counselling (AOR = 4.63, 95% CI 2.22 to 9.64) were determinants of low birth weight. Low birth weight is linked to residence, maternal MUAC, hypertension history, and ANC visit. Lifestyle modifications, early detection, management, and nutrition information can reduce risk.

Determinants of low birth weight in Franceville, Southeast Gabon

Determinants of low birth weight in Franceville, Southeast Gabon

Regional with urban–rural variation in low birth weight and its determinants of Indian children: findings from National Family Health Survey 5 data

BackgroundLow birth weight is a key indicator for child health, especially a concern in low-middle-income countries. However, health and medically-related reforms are being actively implemented in some middle-income countries like India. Identifying low birth weight (LBW) babies with their determinants across the whole country is essential to formulate regional and area-specific interventions. The objective of this study was to find out the burden and determinants of LBW on the regional and residential (rural–urban) divisions of India.MethodsThe present study was based on the NFHS-5 dataset (2019–21), a nationally representative survey in India. A total of 209,223 births were included in this study. A newborn weighing less than 2500 g was considered as LBW. According to the objectives, we used frequency distribution, chi-square test and binary logistic regression analysis for analysing the data.ResultsAbout 18.24% of the babies were LBW in India, significantly higher in rural areas than in urban areas (18.58% vs 17.36%). Regionally prevalence was more frequent in western (20.63%) and central (20.16%) rural areas. Regarding maternal concerns, in the eastern and southern regions of India, mothers aged 25–34 were less likely to have LBW children than mothers aged 35–49 years. It was found that the risk of LBW was more likely among the children born out of unintended pregnancies in almost all regions except for eastern part. In rural India, women who delivered children at home were more likely to have LBW children in India (AOR = 1.19, CI: 1.12–1.28, p < 0.001) and its central, northern, and southern regions than those who gave birth in institutions. The study indicates that LBW coexists with lower maternal education levels and poor household wealth index across all regions. About 58% and 57% of cumulative effects of independent variables on LBW can be distinguished in urban and rural India, respectively.ConclusionsTargeted-specific strategies need to be undertaken as per region and geographical variations. Then only India should be able to decline LBW as proposed by National Health Policy.

The Maternal Sociodemographic Determinants of Low Birth Weight in Indonesia

LBW is one of the highest predictors of infant and child mortality. In Indonesia, more than 100 thousand newborns experience LBW cases. In addition to birth intervals, there are maternal sociodemographic factors that can explain cases of LBW, such as age, parity, location of residence, marital status, education, and level of maternal welfare. For this reason, this study aims to analyze the association between birth intervals and maternal sociodemographic factors in LBW cases using the 2017 IDHS data. The study results show that 1 in 10 babies is born with LBW. More than half are found in rural areas, with secondary education of the mother, and in the poorest conditions. SRS results show that birth interval has no significant association with LBW. However, from the results of MLR, birth interval, parity, mother's age, residency, education, and the interaction between education and birth interval are significant determinants of LBW. Mothers who have children with short (24 months) or long (48 months) birth intervals, live in urban areas, have a lower level of education, and are under 20 or over 35 years old have a greater chance of giving birth to LBW babies. Meanwhile, mothers with more children have a slight chance of giving birth to LBW babies. These findings show the critical role of family planners in educating partners and parents in Indonesia regarding the potential risks of LBW babies according to the mother's sociodemographic condition.

Determinants of low birth weight among newborns delivered in China: a prospective nested case-control study in a mother and infant cohort

This nested case-control study aimed to investigate the determinants of low birth weight among newborn babies delivered in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China. We recorded socio-demographic data, health status before pregnancy, pregnancy outcomes and complications in a Shenzhen mother and infant cohort. Among 8951 cases, 401 (4.48%) had low birth weight and 1.65% were full-term with LBW. Maternal body mass index, family income, history of pregnancy, hypertension before pregnancy, vaginal bleeding in 1st trimester, pregnancy-related diabetes, hypertension, placenta previa, placental abruption, premature rupture of membrane, oligohydramnios, and placental types were significantly associated with low birth weight (P < 0.05). In this study, high-risk and mainly preventable factors were linked to low birth weight. Adequate antenatal care, proper maternal nutrition and implementation of proven strategies to prevent high-risk factors may be effective ways to reduce the incidence of low birth weight.

Incidence and Determinants of Low birth weight babies at rural tertiary care hospital in central Uttar Pradesh

Background: An infant’s birth weight is a reliable index of intrauterine growth and a sensitive predictor of newborn chances of survival, growth and long-term physical and psychosocial development. Low birth weight has been defined as birth weight &lt;2.5 kg regardless of gestational age. The incidence of low birth weight (LBW) in India varies between 25–30% and of which 60–65% are because of intrauterine growth retardation. Aim &amp; Objective: To determine the incidence and various determinants of low birth weight among babies delivered at rural tertiary care hospitals in central Uttar Pradesh. Methods and Material: The study was conducted at UPUMS, Saifai, Etawah, among pregnant women who delivered babies from 1st January 2018 to 31st December 2018. Details regarding age of the mother, gravida, parity, gestation period, presence of complications, the procedure for delivery and birth weight of the newborn were recorded and analyzed using SPSS software (version 23) Results: A total of 7615 deliveries were conducted (53.2% were males, 46.8% were females). The mean birth weight of babies was 2.65 Kg with S.D ± 0.52. Preterm babies were 32% while 67% were term babies and 23% of babies were low birth weight. There was a statistically significant association between birth weight of babies and factors like age of mother, parity of mother, gestation period, and presence of complications during the antenatal period. Conclusions: Prompt identification of high-risk factors, prevention of premature delivery, increasing the use of health services during pregnancy and management of the risk factors would reduce the incidence of low birth weight.

Prevalence and Determinants of Low Birth Weight in India: Findings From a Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Survey (2019-21).

Low birth weight (LBW) is an important public health indicator extensively linked to infant and child mortality, especially in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). Globally, 15.5% of all infants are born with LBW while 95% of these occur in LMICs. This study aims to examine the prevalence and determinants of LBW in India. Data were obtained from the fifth National Family Health Survey (NFHS) round conducted during 2019-2021. The study sample included women aged 15-49 years who had a singleton pregnancy in the five years preceding the survey (N=175,240). A bivariate analysis was carried out and a logistic regression model was fitted to assess the maternal determinants affecting the birth weight among newborns. A total of 175,240 mothers were included in the present study. The proportion of newborns with LBW was 17.29% (n=26366, 95% confidence interval [CI] 17.01, 17.57), of which 6% (n=1450, 95% CI 5.61, 6.41) had very low birth weight (less than 1500 g). An increase in the education level of womenor wealth index also resulted in significantly reduced odds of LBW in the newborn. However, the number of antenatal care (ANC) visits lacked any statistically significant association with the odds of having a newborn with LBW. The burden of LBW in India in recent years has remained stable despite impressive economic growth and increased public health spending on food security and nutritional supplementation. Strengthening the quality of ANC services for pregnant women with a focus on sensitization and awareness generation for improving maternal nutrition requires high prioritization.

Maternal determinants of low birth weight- a record-based study from a tertiary care centre in central India

Background: Birth weight is a major determinant of child’s health and nutrition. There are various factors which determine birth weight like maternal age, parity, socio economic status etc. A new born weighing less than 2.5 kg is classified as a low birth weight (LBW) baby. Low birth weight can be prevented by improving health status and socio-economic status of the community, improving antenatal care and also by providing proper health education. Methods: A record-based study was carried out in a tertiary care facility of central India. Labour room records from January 2021 to December 2021 were reviewed. The details on birth weight, gender, gestational age, parity, and mode of delivery were obtained and recorded. The data obtained was entered in Microsoft office excel software. Statistical analysis was carried out with the help of open Epi. Results: Out of 4266 records which were studied 46.65% mothers were in the age group 21-25 years and 53.52% were multiparas. The proportion of LBW was found to be 41.30%. LBW was found to have a significant association between age of mother, parity, residence and gender of the baby. Conclusions: In this study, sociodemographic factors, maternal age and multiparity has contributed substantially to LBW. Hospitals should inform pregnant women about the importance of appropriate age at conception. It is high time to discuss the aftereffects of older maternal age in detail and to focus more on biological components underlying these associations.

Determinants of Low Birth Weight Among Newborns at Debre Tabor Referral Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Low birth weight is one of the important predictors of perinatal survival, infant morbidity, and mortality, as well as the risk of developmental disabilities and diseases in the future. The study aimed to identify the associated factors of low birth weight among newborns at Debre Tabor referral hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from January 1, 2021 to October 30, 2021 at Debre Tabor Referral Hospital. A total sample of 420 newborn birth records was considered. The binary logistic regression model was used to assess the associated factors of low birth weight. The results are presented as crude odds ratios and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) together with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals. In this study, 422 participants were included. Rural residence (AOR = 2.01; 95%CI 1.10-3.69), married marital status (AOR = 0.82; 95%CI 0.78-0.86), formal education (AOR = 0.79; 95%CI 0.67-0.92), smoking during pregnancy (AOR = 1.19; 95%CI 1.07-1.33), attended antenatal care (ANC) visits (AOR = 0.57; 95%CI 0.35-0.91), diabetes during pregnancy (AOR = 4.34; 95%CI 3.50-5.39), iron supplementation (AOR = 0.23; 95%CI 0.20-0.25), and maternal history of anemia (AOR = 5.87; 95%CI 2.67-12.89) were significantly associated with low birth weight of newborns. This finding showed that residence, marital status, educational status, smoking during pregnancy, ANC visit, diabetes during pregnancy, iron supplementation, and mother's history of anemia were significantly associated with low birth weight. Therefore, policy makers and public health experts/practitioners should plan smoking preventive public health promotion campaigns. Furthermore, it is important that all health professionals properly manage the possible cause of LBW during pregnancy.

A Study of Determinants of Low Birth Weight in Newborns Delivered at One of The Tertiary Care Hospitals in Saurashtra Region, Gujarat

Introduction: Birth weight is one of the most important criteria for determining neonatal and infant survival and is considered a sensitive index of the nation’s health and development. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines low birth weight (LBW) as “Birth weight less than 2500 grams” regardless of gestational age, the measurement being taken preferably within the first hour of life. Objectives:1)To estimate the prevalence of LBW among sample population at tertiary care hospital.2)To study the distribution of newborns, according to socio-demographic characteristics of the mother and its association with LBW. Method: A hospital based cross-sectional study was carried out among 500 newborns between December 2020 and November 2021. Participants were selected by systematic random sampling technique. The data were collected from the case file and face-to-face interview. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the analysis. Results: Prevalence of low birth weight was 29.2%. Majority 271 (54.2%) of newborn mothers’age group was between 21 to 25 years. More than half 272 (54.4%) newborns were from mothers who studied up to primary level education and more than three forth 389 (77.8%) were from mothers who were housewives. Majority 293 (58.6%) of newborns were from the urban area, around three forth 382 (76.4%) newborns were Hindu andnearly two fifth 194 (38.8%) newborns belonged to lower middle class. Prevalence of low birth weight was significantly higher in mothers aged&gt;35 and ≤20, who were illiterate, doing labour work and belonging to lower socio-economic class. Conclusion: The prevalence of Low Birth Weight was 29.2% among sample population. Socio-demographic variables like maternal age &gt;35 years and ≤20 years, illiteracy, labour work and lower socio-economic class had shown significant risk for delivering Low Birth Weight babies.

Determinants of low birth weight in the health district of Bounkiling in Senegal

Aim: Low birth weight (LBW), 9.1 million deaths per year, is a global health issue. The proportion of LBW in Senegal is estimated at 12% (in 2017) and is at 11.7% (in 2017) in the region of Sedhiou. In this regard, rigorous management is required to address this issue, especially in rural areas. The objective of the study was to identify the determinants of LBW.Methodology: This is a case-control study which has been conducted in the district of Bounkiling. Socio-demographic characteristics of the mothers, their obstetrical and medical history, and information on the health status of the newborn in the case group were compared with that of the controls. Bivariate and multivariate analyses are performed using Epi info 7 software to identify the determinants.Results: Low-weights accounted for 97.05% of LBW. The sex ratio was 0.87 in favor of girls. The Apgar score at birth was not good for 31.4% of newborns. Teenage mothers accounted for 17.08%. The multivariate analysis showed that the determinants of LBW (p &lt; 0.05) were the female sex of the newborn, the Apgar score at birth, the maternal age &lt;=19 years, the household income &lt; 83.96 USD, maternal history of low birth weight and physical labor during pregnancy.&#x0D; Conclusion: Strengthening communication on early marriages and pregnancies, empowering women and improving pregnancy monitoring would be levers to counter the determinants of low birth weight.

Maternal Characteristics and Socio-Economic Factors as Determinants of Low Birth Weight in Indonesia: Analysis of 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS).

Although low birth weight (LBW) is still a major health problem in Indonesia, studies about determinants of LBW with large sample sizes are still limited. This study aimed to examine the association between LBW and maternal characteristics, as well as socio-economic backgrounds in Indonesia. A secondary analysis of 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS) was conducted, specifically using the questionnaires for women of childbearing age. A bivariate chi-square analysis and a multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed. As many as 6.7% of infants were born with LBW. In terms of maternal characteristics, women who gave birth to twins were 20.30 times more likely to have infants with LBW (p &lt; 0.001). Women with birth intervals of &lt;24 and ≥24 months were likely to have LBW infants (p &lt; 0.05). Complications during pregnancy were also associated with LBW (1.99 times higher than women with no complications) (p &lt; 0.001). In terms of socio-economic factors, women with higher education and higher wealth index were less likely to give birth to infants with LBW. Additionally, marital status and type of residence were also significantly associated with a higher risk of LBW. In conclusion, LBW was associated with maternal characteristics and socio-economic backgrounds among women of childbearing age in Indonesia, including twin births, birth interval, and pregnancy complications as well as educational attainment, wealth index, marital status, and type of residence.

Determinants of Low Birth Weight among Term Babies at the Sacred Heart Hospital, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Background: Low birth weight (LBW) is a major contributor to the global burden of neonatal morbidity and mortality. It is important to identify the significant determinants of LBW, mainly among term babies, who should have achieved optimal weight gain before delivery to reduce the burden of LBW. Objectives: To determine the Prevalence of LBW among term babies delivered in a Nigerian hospital and the socio-demographic and clinical correlates of LBW. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among two hundred and twenty-seven term babies and their mothers at the Sacred Heart Hospital, Lantoro (SHHL), Abeokuta, Nigeria, between November 2017 and February 2018. Results: The Prevalence of LBW was 4.4 %. Over 90% of the mothers were educated, married and employed. There was a significant association between term-LBW and maternal booking BMI, anaemia at booking, multiple pregnancies, alcohol intake in pregnancy and paternal level of education. Underweight booking BMI, anaemia at booking, and low paternal level of education were independent predictors of term-LBW. Conclusions: The Prevalence of term-LBW babies in this study was relatively low. Aside from multiple pregnancies, the other main determinants of LBW include modifiable parental socioeconomic factors. Further reduction in term LBW can be achieved by improving parental education and enhancing maternal health through pre-conception care.

Determinants of Low Birth Weight Occurrence in Bahteramas Regional General Hospital, Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

Objective: This study aims to identify the determinants of Low Birth Weight (LBW) in Bahteramas General Hospital, Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia.&#x0D; Method: This research uses an institutional-based Case-Control Study design from May to June 2021 at the Bahteramas Hospital, Southeast Sulawesi Province. Data were collected from 134 samples of mothers giving birth, with 67 of them having babies with birth weight &lt;2500 g (cases) and 67 of them having birth weights &gt;2500 g (controls) using secondary data, namely medical records. Data were analyzed by univariate, bivariate with odds ratio test, and multivariate analysis with multiple logistic regression to identify the determinants of LBW..&#x0D; Result: Based on the logistic regression analysis, it found that the mother's educational status variable was ≤12 years [AOR 0.19 (95% CI 0.06-0.62)]; mothers with parity one or &gt;3 [AOR 0.06 (95% CI 0.01-0.21)]; birth spacing &lt;2 years [AOR 4.49 (95% CI 1.37-14.74)], mothers who had a history of hypertension during pregnancy [AOR 0.07 (95% CI 0.02-0.23)]; and mothers who had a history of anemia during pregnancy [AOR 0.10 (95% CI 0.03-0.31)] with parameter significance in the partial test, each p&lt;0.05, shown to be associated with the incidence of LBW.&#x0D; Conclusions: This study concludes that the mother's low educational status, parity, birth spacing, history of hypertension, and history of anemia were found to be predictors of LBW. It is necessary to improve the knowledge, maintain birth interval, and routinely carry out ANC visits for early detection of pregnancy complications.&#x0D; Keywords: LBW; education status, parity; birth interval; history of hypertension; history of anemia.

Determinants of Low Birth Weight Among Newborns Delivered in Silte Zone Public Health Facilities, Southern Ethiopia: A Case-Control Study

Determinants of Low Birth Weight Among Newborns Delivered in Silte Zone Public Health Facilities, Southern Ethiopia: A Case-Control Study

Periodontal diseases in pregnant women as a risk factor: a concise systematic review

This study highlighted that periodontal diseases in pregnant women can be one of the determinants of low birth weight. Studies were carried out to verify the existence of an association between maternal periodontal disease and low birth weight. Gestational period, where the occurrence of periodontal diseases (PD) is more likely, due to its hormonal and physiological changes. Therefore, pregnant women must be alert and take proper care, have prenatal care with their dentist, in addition to their oral care, they must be alert to the risks of low birth weight and premature births. Infections in regions of the genitourinary tract, such as PD, may be associated with the occurrence of low birth weight newborns through the same mechanisms as other maternal and preterm birth infections. The contraction of the uterus and cervical dilation, acting as a trigger for premature birth, can be caused by inflammatory stimuli, which can induce hyperirritability of the uterine smooth muscles. The infection and the resulting inflammatory process can cause damage to the placenta, thereby restricting fetal development. Throughout life, a woman goes through several phases of hormonal fluctuations that, in addition to interfering with the reproductive system, exert influence on other organs and systems, such as the periodontium, particularly in the presence of preexisting gingival inflammation induced by plaque. During pregnancy, a woman is exposed to several significant hormonal changes, as the placenta produces high amounts of estrogen and progesterone, which in turn affect the oral tissues. It was concluded that black women aged over 40 years old are more likely to have PD, having a higher risk of low development to the fetus.

Determinants of Low Birth Weight in Indonesia

Low birth weight (LBW) is one of the main factors influencing the development of chronic disease in adulthood in surviving or surviving infants. This study aims to determine the determinants of the incidence of LBW in toddlers (infants aged 0-5 years) in Indonesia. This study uses a data set from the 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS). The dependent variable is the child’s LBW status, while the independent variable consists of 3 variable blocks, namely; distal, intermediate and proximal variables. The number of samples in this study was 14,372 people. Data analysis was done descriptively and inferentially. The results showed that, of the 14,262 samples analyzed, 7% showed LBW. The highest probability of LBW was associated with the type of birth of twins (AOR: 22,087; 95%CI: 18,344-26,194), the order of birth of the 4th child or more (AOR: 2,231; 95%CI: 1,887-2.598), experiencing pregnancy complications (AOR: 1.887; 95% CI: 1.543-2.134), number of ANC visits less than 4 times (AOR: 1.763; 95% CI: 1.411-2.202), low maternal education (AOR: 1.711; 95% CI: 1.344-2.143), no consumption of iron tablets during pregnancy (AOR: 1.316; 95% CI:1.109-1.623), and households with low wealth quintiles (AOR: 1.301; 95% CI: 1.197-1.324. Various aspects have been associated with LBW which is expected to contribute on elaborating health and family policies and promoting better living conditions for mothers and children in Indonesia.