Detergent Samples Research Articles

Comparative studies of the toxicity of new synthetic detergents based on anionic and nonionic surface active substance

Introduction. Among the complex of environmental factors that are subject to toxicological and hygienic studies, household chemicals deserve great attention due to their mass production, a variety of components and formulations, as well as possible direct effects on the human body. The purpose of the work is to conduct comparative studies on the study of toxicometric parameters of new synthetic detergents. Material and methods. In accordance with the planned purpose of the study in the biological testing laboratory of the “Federal Scientific Center of Hygiene named after F.F. Erisman”, experiments were conducted to establish the parameters of acute oral toxicity, to determine the presence of a possible irritant effect on the skin and mucous membranes of the eyes, the single and multiple (10 applications) skin-resorptive effect of the working solution was studied, the sensitizing properties of the compounds were investigated. The research was carried out in accordance with the methodological guidelines: MG 4230–86, MG 2102–79, MG 2196–80, MG 1.1.578–96. At the end of the study, rats were euthanized using CO2 at the AE0904 animal euthanasia unit. The results of the conducted studies were processed by statistically generally accepted methods using the Student’s t-criteria in the Microsoft Excel. Results. When studying the acute oral toxicity of samples of synthetic detergents, it was found that the average lethal dose LD50 (rats) is > 5000 mg/kg of body weight. When applied once to the skin (rats and rabbits) and to the mucous membranes of the eye (guinea pigs and rabbits), the samples of detergents do not cause irritation, do not have a skin-resorptive (rats) and allergenic effect (guinea pigs). Limitations related to the analysis of the results of experimental data on toxicometric parameters (determination of LD50, irritant effect on the skin and mucous membrane of the eye, skin-resorptive and allergic effects) without taking into account the carcinogenic effect of new synthetic detergents on the body of warm-blooded (rats). Conclusions. Comparative studies have not revealed any differences in the toxicometric parameters of the studied synthetic detergents. It was found that in all samples, the average lethal dose LD50 orally is >5000 mg/kg of body weight; irritant effect on the skin and mucous membranes of the eye – 0 points; clinical signs of intoxication with irritative and resorptive action were not revealed; sensitizing properties of the drugs – 0 points. Synthetic detergents samples according to the studied parameters belong to low-risk compounds.

Potentiometric Surfactant Sensor with a Pt-Doped Acid-Activated Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube-Based Ionophore Nanocomposite.

Two new surfactant sensors were developed by synthesizing Pt-doped acid-activated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Pt@MWCNTs). Two different ionophores using Pt@MWCNTs, a new plasticizer, and (a) cationic surfactant 1,3-dihexadecyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-3-ium-DHBI (Pt@MWCNT-DHBI ionophore) and (b) anionic surfactant dodecylbenzenesulfonate-DBS (Pt@MWCNT-DBS ionophore) composites were successfully synthesized and characterized. Both surfactant sensors showed a response to anionic surfactants (dodecylsulfate (SDS) and DBS) and cationic surfactants (cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) and hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)). The Pt@MWCNT-DBS sensor showed lower sensitivity than expected with the sub-Nernstian response of ≈23 mV/decade of activity for CPC and CTAB and ≈33 mV/decade of activity for SDS and DBS. The Pt@MWCNT-DHBI surfactant sensor had superior response properties, including a Nernstian response to SDS (59.1 mV/decade) and a near-Nernstian response to DBS (57.5 mV/decade), with linear response regions for both anionic surfactants down to ≈2 × 10-6 M. The Pt@MWCNT-DHBI was also useful in critical micellar concentration (CMC) detection. Common anions showed very low interferences with the sensor. The sensor was successfully employed for the potentiometric titration of a technical grade cationic surfactant with good recoveries. The content of cationic surfactants was measured in six samples of complex commercial detergents. The Pt@MWCNT-DHBI surfactant sensor showed good agreement with the ISE surfactant sensor and classical two-phase titration and could be used as an analytical tool in quality control.

Synergistic Combination of Carbohydrate Polymer with Conventional Active Materials for Detergent Formulations

Novel ecofriendly polymeric surfactant based on Sorbitol and Maleic anhydride has been synthesized and used successfully in detergent composition. Sorbitol is obtained majorly as a vegetable product. In present research work a small quantity of Maleic anhydride and Benzoic acid along with major quantity of Sorbitol has been used in synthesis of polymer. The mole ratio of ingredients and cooking schedule has been standardized to get desired molecular weight, HLB ratio and surfactant properties. Powder detergents have been formulated based on these novel polymer and conventional active ingredients such as alpha olefin sulphonate, sodium lauryl sulphate. And linear alkyl benzene sulphonate. This synergistic combination of novel polymer has been used as a 60 to 80% replacement of conventional linear alkyl benzene sulphonate in detergent powder formulation. The preparation of this polymer is ecofriendly and has a potential for commercial use as an ecofriendly detergent in powder form. The surface tension, foam height, % detergency and stain removing characteristics have been evaluated and compared with commercially available powder detergent sample. The petroleum resources are soaring in price and their replacement with novel polymer of vegetable origin will certainly promote the cause of Green Chemistry and Green Environment. Key word: - Novel polymer, Sorbitol, Detergents, Surfactants, Maleic anhydride, Synergistic combination. HLB- Hydrophilic–lipophilic balance.

The formation and adsorption mechanism studies of 3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs/FeOOH for the highly efficient removal of phosphate

Phosphate in water can cause a series of problems such as overgrowth of algae and other aquatic organisms, foul-smelling, turbid water and lower dissolved oxygen concentrations, thereby posing a serious threat to human health and environment. To efficiently remove phosphate from water, three-dimensional hydrangea-like ZnFe-layered double hydroxides/FeOOH composites (3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs/FeOOH) were designed and prepared by a facile urea hydrothermal method. The maximum adsorption capacity of phosphate by 3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs/FeOOH reached about 200 mg·g−1, much higher than that of ZnFe-LDHs prepared by co-precipitation method (53 mg·g−1) and other reported adsorbents, which confirmed that 3D morphology contributed to the improvement of adsorption capacity. Time-dependent experiments were designed to explore the formation mechanism of 3D hydrangea-like structure and the results indicated directional aggregation and epitaxial growth were two main processes. Batch experiments were conducted to investigate adsorption behavior of phosphate. The adsorption kinetics and isotherms showed that the adsorption process followed the quasi-first-order kinetics and Langmuir model. Besides, 3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs/FeOOH could be regenerated effectively and recycled at least three times. 3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs/FeOOH possessed fascinating performance in phosphate removal from real river samples and laundry detergent samples, with the removal rates of 66–100 % and 80–100 %, respectively. Furthermore, 3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs showed good adsorption performance towards other anionic dyes, including Congo Red and Orange Yellow II, with the maximum adsorption capacity of 867 mg·g−1 and 225 mg·g−1, indicating its widespread applicability. The adsorption mechanism of phosphate by 3D hydrangea-like ZnFe-LDHs was furtherly investigated, mainly containing metal coordination, anion exchange between layers and electrostatic interactions.

Potentially Toxic Elements in Commercial Soap and Powder Detergent Samples

Dry decomposition, wet digestion, and dissolution in aqueous medium for direct analysis were evaluated for the preparation of eight samples of liquid and bar soap and one powder detergent for later determination of Cd, Mg, Pb, and Zn by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP OES). The evaluation of the best conditions for digestion of the samples were chosen from a set of tests where conventional heating using 1 mol L-1 HNO3 with addition of 30% H2O2 proved to be the most efficient method. The average hydrodynamic diameter of 525 nm was determined using dynamic light scattering measurements. The concentrations found were: Cd and Pb (< limit of detection (LOD)), Mg (50.89 to 1119 μg g-1), and Zn (280.25 to 537.54 μg g-1). After evaluating the sample preparation methods, the accuracy of the methodology was verified through recovery tests of analytes, obtaining values between 83 and 119% and a relative standard deviation (RSD) ≤ 4.30% (n = 6; 4 mg L-1). The LOD ranged from 0.015 to 0.5 µg g-1 and the limits of quantification (LOQ) from 0.045 to 2 µg g-1. The soaps and powder detergent samples studied here may be used without any harm to health as the contents were within the limits established by the legislation.

The Blue Molybdenum Reaction for the Determination of Phosphate in Natural Water and Detergent Samples

Background:
 The ideal reaction conditions for the quantitative detection of phosphate in various natural water and detergent samples were carefully researched in order to produce and preserve the colored complex product. The blue complex was identified using a simple and accurate UV-VIS spectrophotometer with a maximum wavelength of 870 nm.
 Even though phosphate is an essential ingredient for the development of aquatic species, it is important to know exactly how much is present because an excess amount of phosphate can eutrophic water. Since detergents are one of the sources of phosphate in natural water, determining the concentration of phosphate in detergent samples is also essential.
 Materials and Methods:
 The method is based on the addition of sodium molybdate, which causes the interaction of orthophosphate with molybdate to produce an intense, stable, and water-soluble phosphomolybdate blue complex. Then, this combination is reduced using hydrazine hydrate in a sulfuric acid solution.
 Results:
 With a correlation coefficient of 0.9944, the system complies with Lambert-Beer's law at 870 nm in a concentration range of (0.05-9) ppm. Molar absorptivity was determined to be 12.16x103 L mol-1 cm-1 and Sandell's sensitivity was found to be 0.0156 g cm-2. Water samples were collected from Warte, Choman, Jundeyan, and Bexal in Kurdistan's vicinity of Soran. Further, detergent samples that were obtained from the market and their phosphate level were examined. The Bexal waterfall had the lowest concentration of phosphate, 0.18 ppm, while the Warte and Jundeyan water samples had the highest concentrations, 3.31 ppm, and 3.04 ppm, respectively. Moreover, similar phosphate concentrations in the two detergent samples were discovered to be at 20.43 and 24.76 ppm.
 Conclusion:
 The molybdenum blue reaction has been successfully employed to provide a sensitive and quick measuring method to quantify the phosphate content in various water and detergent samples using UV-VIS spectrophotometry by applying the right reaction conditions and reagent quantities.

Sandwich composites of bismuth sulfide nanoparticles decorated with cobalt ferrite oxide for waste water treatment

To detect cadmium (Cd2+) ions, electrochemical and calorimetric studies have been performed due to their high sensitivity and selectivity. Heterogeneous photocatalysts have been used to degrade and decolorize azo dyes because they are adaptable, cause less secondary pollution, and are cost-effective. In this study, synthesized Bi2S3 nanoparticles adorned on CoFe2O4 (BiSNPs@CFO) substrates by using chemical methods. The primary source of Cd2+ ions in digested detergent samples was detected and coded as samples A, B, and C. Laundry wastewater was denoted as sample D. Both photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL) and cyclic voltammetry techniques (CV) were employed to detect the presence of cadmium ion in the selected samples. Pollution assessment risk index values indicated that samples B and C contributed to Cd2+ ions pollution more compared with sample A. The Igeo (geo-accumulation) values were 4.08 (sample B), 3 (sample C), and 13.5 (sample D), which indicated a high pollution level. Then, the methylene blue (MB) dye was periodically degraded at a fixed concentration and pH, and the efficiency reached 83%, with the apparent rate constant of 0.0106/min with a high R2 value of approximately 0.9015. In this study, the two pathogens were isolated from laundry wastewater, namely, Aspergillus sp. and Trichoderma sp, and their growth and biomass production were examined. The antifungal activity of BiSNPs@CFO composites was studied using the standard fluconazole. The nanocomposites can be used as a probe to detect the presence of Cd2+ ions and degrade azo dyes and Aspergillus sp. and Trichoderma sp. predominantly grown in laundry wastewater.

Spectrophotometric Determination of Phosphates in Detergent Samples Available in Tansen, Palpa

Phosphate is primarily used as a builder in detergents, which helps soften hard water, thereby increasing the cleansing power of detergents. Extensive discharge of phosphate from detergents leads to eutrophication of surface water bodies. This work aims to assess the amount of phosphate present in detergent samples available in Tansen, Palpa, and compare its concentration between local and foreign detergents. Phosphate in detergent samples can be determined by the molybdenum blue phosphorus method using a spectrophotometer. The experimental process relies on forming a phosphomolybdate blue complex with ammonium molybdate and the subsequent reduction of the complex by hydrazine hydrate in an aqueous sulphuric acid medium. The system obeys Beer-Lambert’s law at 830 nm in the concentration range of 2-16 ppm. In this study, the phosphate concentration in local detergents (Dhoni, Light, V-Series, Nirma, Upahar, Patanjali, Rin Shakti and Dr Jhatka) varied from 15.54-33.03 ppm, and that of foreign detergents (Wheel, Super Check, Surf Excel, Tide and Ariel) ranged from 23.81- 32.65 ppm. The amount of phosphate was compared between local and foreign detergent samples using the student's t-test, which revealed no significant difference between them. The results obtained from the study disclosed that the detergents under investigation are within the permissible limits of phosphate. However, non- phosphate-based builders can be used to discourage the use of phosphate in detergents.

Potentiometric Surfactant Sensor for Anionic Surfactants Based on 1,3-dioctadecyl-1H-imidazol-3-ium tetraphenylborate

As anionic surfactants are used as cleaning agents, they pose an environmental and health threat. A novel potentiometric sensor for anionic surfactants based on the 1,3-dioctadecyl-1H-imidazol-3-ium tetraphenylborate (DODI–TPB) ionophore is presented. The newly developed approach for DODI–TPB synthesis is faster and simpler than the currently used strategies and follows the green chemistry principles. The DODI–TPB ionophore was characterized by computational and instrumental techniques (NMR, LC–MS, FTIR, elemental analysis) and used to produce a PVC-based DODI–TPB sensor. The sensor showed linear response to dodecylbenzenesulfonate and dodecyl sulfate in concentration ranges of 6.3 × 10−7–3.2 × 10−4 M and 5.9 × 10−7–4.1 × 10−3 M, for DBS and SDS, respectively. The sensor exhibits a Nernstian slope (59.3 mV/decade and 58.3 mV/decade for DBS and SDS, respectively) and low detection limits (7.1 × 10−7 M and 6.8 × 10−7 M for DBS and SDS, respectively). The DODI–TPB sensor was successfully tested on real samples of commercial detergents and the results are in agreement with the referent methods. A computational analysis underlined the importance of long alkyl chains in DODI+ and their C–H∙∙∙π interactions with TPB– for the ionophore formation in solution, thereby providing guidelines for the future design of efficient potentiometric sensors.

Facile Hydrothermal Synthesis of Hierarchical Sodium P Zeolite as a Nonphosphate Detergent Builder

AbstractThis study reports the preparation of hierarchical NaP zeolite with the aim of obtaining a non‐phosphate detergent builder as an alternative for environmental remediation from eutrophication phenomenon. Hierarchically structured NaP zeolite was easily synthesized hydrothermally and under different syntheses conditions. Samples were characterized using several standard techniques such as X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectroscopy, and N2 adsorption–desorption analysis. Three powder detergents were prepared by mixing main components such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonate, sodium sulfate, sodium silicate, and sodium carbonate as well as different amounts of as‐synthesized zeolite and sodium tripolyphosphate in the detergent formulation as potential detergency builders. Some different detergency tests as pH value, water insolubility, foam height, moisture content, alcohol insolubility, and surface tension measurement were carried out for all synthetic detergent samples and two commercial ones. The results demonstrated that the high cleaning performance of the powders was obtained as using eco‐friendly zeolite builders in comparison with phosphate‐based commercial and synthetic detergent samples.

Spectrophotometric determination of traces allura red in environmental samples after a deep eutectic solvent-based microextraction

ABSTRACT A new method has been developed based on UV–Vis spectrophotometer measurement after liquid-phase microextraction using deep eutectic solvents for the determination of allura red dye. Tetra-n-butyl ammonium bromide and decanoic acid were used as deep eutectic solvent components by the developed method. The effects of the method on recovery, mainly pH, deep eutectic solvent components and volume, tetrahydrofuran volume, matrix effects, model solution volume, ultrasonication time and centrifugation time were also investigated. Allura red was extracted into the deep eutectic solvent phase at pH 4.0. The relative standard deviations were lower than 5%. The limit of detection (LOD) and preconcentration factor were found to be 3.92 µg/L and 13, respectively. The accuracy of the method was confirmed by the addition method on water, detergent and chocolate samples.

Rapid and Simple Identification and Quantification of Components in Detergent Formulations by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

AbstractA rapid, inexpensive, and simple high‐resolution NMR spectroscopic method is outlined for determining the content of surfactants and other low‐molecular‐weight organic compounds in detergent formulations. With simple sample preparation, quantitative results can be obtained from an internal standard and/or the method can be used as a fingerprint analysis of the surfactant composition. The NMR sample is prepared by suspending the detergent sample in deuterated acetic acid and thus dissolving surfactants and other organic compounds. Any content of carbonate will be liberated as CO2, whereas other inorganic materials are removed by centrifugation. From one‐dimensional 1H and two‐dimensional HSQC NMR spectra, the surfactant components and low‐molecular‐weight organic compounds can be identified from reference spectra. Intensities of signature signals in the one‐dimensional 1H NMR spectrum are used for quantification by comparing with an internal standard. Furthermore, it is demonstrated how 31P NMR can be used to identify and quantify phosphonate‐type chelators.

RISK ASSESSMENT OF HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS PRODUCT USE FOR THE POPULATION

Introduction. The range of household chemicals is constantly increasing, as a result of which the population is exposed to new detergents that can directly affect the health of the population, constantly in contact with chemicals in everyday life. These circumstances require sanitary and Toxicological study of household chemicals and the development of preventive measures aimed at protecting public health. Purpose of research. To assess the risk of using synthetic detergent based on anionic and nonionic surface active substance (SAS). Material and methods. To determine the average lethal dose (LD50), a sample of detergent was injected into the stomach of 6 male rats at a dose of 5000 mg per 1 kg of body weight. Irritant effect on the skin was determined with a single application of the working solution (1.25%) to 6 rats and 3 rabbits on the trimmed side section at an exposure of 4 h, followed by flushing and into the conjunctival eye bag to 6 Guinea pigs and 3 rabbits. The follow-up period was 14 days. A single skin-resorptive effect of the working solution was studied in 20 rats of two groups of 10 animals in the control group and 10 in the experimental group. Observation period - 14 days. Multiple resorptive action was studied in 20 rats in two groups (10 animals in the control group and 10 in the experimental group) to determine the peripheral blood of animals in the control and experimental groups. The sensitizing effect of the detergent sample was studied on 20 Guinea pigs in two groups (10 in the control group and 10 in the experimental group) by a combined method. Results. LD50 orally for male rats >5000 mg/kg b.w., with a single application to the skin of rats and rabbits and the mucous membrane of the eyes of guinea pigs and rabbits does not cause irritation, does not have skin-resorbtive action (rats), does not have an allergenic effect (guinea pigs). Discussion. According to the results of studies, in accordance with the classification according to the degree of exposure to harmful substances, the tested sample according to acute oral toxicity belongs to the 4th class of danger, irritating effect on the skin and mucous membranes of the eye - 0 points; clinical signs of intoxication with a single and multiple skin-resorptive action was not revealed; sensitizing effect - 0 points. Conclusions. The studied sample of a synthetic detergent according to the parameters of acute toxicity refers to low-risk compounds (LD50 > 5000 mg/kg b.w.), does not have an irritating effect on the skin and mucous membrane of the eye, sensitizing and skin-resorptive action, which allows us to conclude that there is no risk of using the studied sample, household chemicals for the population.

The use of oxidation reactor for water sample preparation in the total phosphate determination using Segmented Flow Analysis

The pollution in surface waters such as rivers, lakes/reservoirs and estuarine is mostly caused by domestic waste; one of them is detergent. Detergents used in households contain phosphate that disrupts the ecosystem. In the determination of detergents, sample preparation is one of the most important stages. This study describes the use of an oxidation reactor with UV radiation for the destruction of total phosphate compounds in detergent into dissolved phosphates in the preparation stage of detergent determination. With this method, the destruction of total phosphate in detergent samples required a very short time and could be connected directly to the Segmented Flow Analysis device. In this study, the oxidation reactor was tested on artificial samples containing 0.5% detergent and water samples from the Citarum and Cikapundung Rivers (Bandung, Indonesia) which were estimated to be contaminated with detergent. The average concentrations of total phosphate of the samples from Cikapundung and Citarum were 4.5773 ± 0.2286 mg-PO43-/l and 4.1841 ± 0.0361 mg-PO43-/l, respectively. Meanwhile, the average concentration of total phosphate of the artificial sample was 5.5727 ± 0.1830 mg-PO43-/l. The results show that the sample digestion method using UV radiation in the oxidation reactor can provide excellent results with a high recovery at 94.51%.

A green microextraction method for determination of sodium dodecyl sulfate in washing liquid samples based on continuous sample drop flow-based microextraction

A novel and improved version of continuous-flow microextraction known as continuous sample drop flow-based microextraction has been utilized for the first time in extraction and preconcentration of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) from detergent samples prior to spectrophotometric determination. In this paper, some effective parameters for determination of SDS, such as the needle diameter, flow rate, concentration of the methylene blue and pH, were optimized. Under optimized conditions, a good linearity for SDS was obtained in the range of 30–400 ng mL−1 with R2 = 0.999. A practical detection limit of 8.2 ng mL−1 was calculated according to a signal-to-noise ratio of three. The enrichment factor of the method was 122.2. The method was employed for determination of total anionic surfactants in shampoo, hand washing liquid and clothes washing liquid. Satisfactory recoveries in the range of 97.9–100.8% for real samples confirmed the good accuracy and applicability of the present method. Afterward, the samples were analyzed by standard method as well and there was no any difference between the standard and the proposed method.

Separation and identification of polymeric dispersants in detergents by two-dimensional liquid chromatography

Polymeric dispersants are an important ingredient in many consumer products. Their separations and identifications in final product formulation can be very challenging due to the presence of multiple polymeric dispersants at different levels and the presence of other polymeric and small-molecule components. In this study, using nearly comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC), various water-soluble polymer and co-polymer dispersants were separated with aqueous size exclusion chromatography (SEC) in the first dimension (1D) and gradient elution reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) in the second dimension (2D). Detection of the polymeric dispersants was accomplished by evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD). A large ID (8.0 mm) SEC column used in common one-dimensional SEC practices was directly adopted in the 2D setup for rapid method development. A close representation of fully comprehensive 2D separation was achieved even with 60% of 1D eluent diverted to waste, demonstrating the flexibility and versatility of having SEC in 1D for two dimensional separation of polymers. Important method parameters, such as 2D column dimensions and flow rate, gradient conditions, and buffer pH were studied. Practical aspects of routine industrial applications such as solvent consumption and analysis time were also considered. This method was exploited for quick identification of polymeric dispersants in commercial detergent samples. Nine detergent samples were screened and polymeric dispersants and additional polymer features were detected in the samples.

PENGARUH PENGGUNAAN HEWAN UJI YANG SAMA SECARA BERULANG PADA PENGUJIAN KOROSI DERMAL

One of the procedures to determine the hazardous and toxic material waste is by conducting the corrosive testing. The testing of waste toxicity by acute dermal method is applied to recognize the adverse effects that occur after exposing the waste by direct contact. It will be indicated by corrosive or irritated effects, either topically or locally. Dermal corrosion testing is conducted under OECD Guideline no 404 using rabbit. Unknown waste sample and detergent as positive control were exposed to the shaved-dorsal part of rabbit with the area of 2.5 x 2.5 cm. Observation was performed to recognize the symptom of oedema and erythema as a result of sample’s reaction with skin and was being evaluated after 4, 24, 48, and 72 hours. In this study, dermal corrosion testing was performed using the same test animal due to animal welfare issues about reducing animal in toxicology study. The visual scoring result showed that waste sample did not generate the corrosive effect on animal test. The experiment using detergent sample are intended to obtain some information after the assessment of corrosive level. The testing with the same animal was carried out after 30 days later. The first test presented the category 3, mild irritant, with the average score for erythema/edema of 2,1, while the second testing showed category 4, non irritant. Thus, using same individual testing animal on repeated dermal corrosion testing showed the effect of resistance to detergent samples and the animal provided a less-sensitive respond for the same sample.

PENGARUH PENGGUNAAN HEWAN UJI YANG SAMA SECARA BERULANG PADA PENGUJIAN KOROSI DERMAL

One of the procedures to determine the hazardous and toxic material waste is by conducting the corrosive testing. The testing of waste toxicity by acute dermal method is applied to recognize the adverse effects that occur after exposing the waste by direct contact. It will be indicated by corrosive or irritated effects, either topically or locally. Dermal corrosion testing is conducted under OECD Guideline no 404 using rabbit. Unknown waste sample and detergent as positive control were exposed to the shaved-dorsal part of rabbit with the area of 2.5 x 2.5 cm. Observation was performed to recognize the symptom of oedema and erythema as a result of sample’s reaction with skin and was being evaluated after 4, 24, 48, and 72 hours. In this study, dermal corrosion testing was performed using the same test animal due to animal welfare issues about reducing animal in toxicology study. The visual scoring result showed that waste sample did not generate the corrosive effect on animal test. The experiment using detergent sample are intended to obtain some information after the assessment of corrosive level. The testing with the same animal was carried out after 30 days later. The first test presented the category 3, mild irritant, with the average score for erythema/edema of 2,1, while the second testing showed category 4, non irritant. Thus, using same individual testing animal on repeated dermal corrosion testing showed the effect of resistance to detergent samples and the animal provided a less-sensitive respond for the same sample.

Determining the Residual Characteristics of Alkylphenols, Arsenic, and Lead as well as Assessing the Exposures of 1,4-Dioxane from Household Food Detergents.

Food detergents are commonly used in households. The main components of detergents include surfactants and water. It has been found that certain compounds, which may cause health concerns, appear in food detergents, such as alkylphenols, arsenic, and lead. After applying food detergents is when people may be exposed to various levels of these chemicals when there are residues. In this study, the Taguchi experimental design was performed to determine the possible factors that might affect the residual characteristics of food detergent on dishware, fruits, and vegetables. The results showed that the variety of detergent was found to be the most significant factor affecting the residue amounts of arsenic (62.9%) and lead (71.6%) on fruits and vegetables, whereas the concentration of detergent used affected the amount of lead residue only (10.5%). On the other hand, dishware material, the concentration of analytes, immersion time, and type of surfactant contributed to arsenic residues on dishware, whereas technical nonylphenol isomer residues on dishware increased as the concentration of spiked analyte increased. In addition, the occurrence of 1,4-dioxane, a possible human carcinogen, in household food detergents in Taiwan was also determined in this research by solid-phase microextraction and GC-MS. Among the 80 detergent samples, 71 contained different concentrations ranges of 1,4-dioxane, from 0.03 to ~3.73 µg/g. In the exposure assessment, it was estimated that the maximum amounts of 1,4-dioxane in contact with the skin from the use of household food detergent in Taiwan was 0.015 µg/kg/day.

Radionuclide content in laundry detergents commercially available on the Serbian market and assessment of radiological environmental hazards

Laundry detergents are chemicals widely used in everyday life, and in numerous industry branches. In order to perceive the radiological aspect of environmental pollution by wastewater, the analysis of laundry detergents available on the Serbian market was undertaken. Laundry detergent samples were measured by means of gamma spectrometry and the results are presented in this paper. Analysis of the obtained activity concentrations showed that laundry detergents in Serbia mostly fulfill the international recommendation and requirements regarding the phosphate content. Besides that, the content of the detected radionuclides in laundry detergent samples indicates the minor radiological risk to the environment via wastewaters.