Detector Dead Time Research Articles

Improved model on asynchronous measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution with realistic devices

Abstract In principle, the asynchronous measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution (AMDI-QKD) can surpass the key rate capacity without phase tracking and phase locking. However, practical imperfections in sources or detections would dramatically depress its performance. Here, we present an improved model on AMDI-QKD to reduce the influence of these imperfections, including intensity fluctuation, the afterpulse effect, and the dead time of detectors. Furthermore, we carry out corresponding numerical simulations. Simulation results show that, by implementing our present work, it can have more than 100 km longer secure transmission distance and one order of magnitude enhancement in the key generation rate after 320 km compared with the standard method. Moreover, our model can still break the Pirandola–Laurenza–Ottaviani–Banchi (PLOB) bound even under realistic experimental conditions.

Development of an Anti-Discharge Unit (ADU) for gaseous proportional counters at FRIB

Sporadic harmful discharges between the detector electrodes are inherent features of the operation of proportional counters in conditions of highly ionizing background, high gas gain, or high rate. Frequent energetic discharges can deteriorate the overall performance of the detector and cause permanent damage to the detector components. In addition, they can significantly reduce the counting rate capability of the device due to the prolonged recovery time of high-voltage power supplies.In this work, we describe the development of an Anti-Discharge Unit (ADU) implemented in a Parallel-Plate Avalanche Counter (PPAC) for heavy-ion tracking. The ADU is based on a High-Voltage (HV) MOSFET switch that shuts off the electric field between the detector electrodes within a few tens of nanoseconds when the output signal is above a fixed threshold, effectively preventing the development of streamer discharges. The avalanche field is restored within a few milliseconds so that the detector dead time is small, even in the case of moderately high spark rates. The ADU can operate effectively in conditions of high rates and highly ionizing backgrounds, in addition to enhancing the detection efficiency and extending the lifetime of the electrodes.

Phase-resolved Deadtime of the Crab Pulsar Using IXPE Data

After receiving an X-ray photon, an X-ray detector is not operational for a duration known as deadtime. It is detector specific and its effect on the data depends upon the luminosity of the source. It reduces the observed photon count rate in comparison to the expected one. In periodic sources such as the Crab pulsar, it can distort the folded light curve (FLC). An undistorted FLC of the Crab pulsar is required in combination with its polarization properties for studying its X-ray emission mechanism. This work derives a simple formula for the distortion of the FLC of a pulsar caused by the detector deadtime, and validates it using Crab pulsar data from the X-ray observatories Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer and Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array, which have very small and relatively large detector deadtimes respectively. Then it derives a method for correcting the distorted FLC of the Crab pulsar in Imaging X-ray Polarimeter Explorer data, which have intermediate detector deadtime. The formula is verified after addressing several technical issues. This work ends with a discussion of why an undistorted FLC is important for studying the formation of cusps in the FLC of the Crab pulsar.

A novel method for accurate and real-time quantification of radiopharmaceutical activity in automated dose dispensers

In recent years, there has been a rapid growth in new technologies within nuclear medicine and PET diagnostics, particularly in the field of radiopharmaceutical dose preparation. These advancements are driven by the integration of automatic algorithms into the process. This evolution has brought about significant improvements in the efficiency and accuracy of radiopharmaceutical dose preparation. These automatic algorithms utilize state-of-the-art technologies to streamline the process and ensure precise and tailored doses for patients. The integration of these advanced technologies has revolutionized the field, allowing for more effective and personalized treatment options in nuclear medicine and PET diagnostics. By employing automatic radiopharmaceutical dose dispensers (ARDDs), radiation exposure to technologists is minimized while also mitigating the risk of potential infections for patients. Ionization chambers are currently the most used detectors to measure the activity of radiopharmaceuticals in ARDDs. However, they present certain limitations, including size constraints. This study is part of an international endeavor to develop a new approach for evaluating radiopharmaceutical activity in an ARDD named KARl 100. A new approach was used to develop a scintillation detector by linking a PVT detector to a SiPMs array consisting of four elements, each having an active surface of 6 × 6 mm with a bias voltage of 30 V. The detection system's amplified output was then fed to a single-channel analyzer called Enviro, developed by Tema Sinergie S.p.A in Italy. The counts per second (CPS) detected by the detector were studied using WinTAM software allowing for the radionuclide’s activity concentration to be read out at run-time. Three widely used medical radioisotopes, 18F, 11C and 68Ga, were used to evaluate the performance of the detector in terms of linearity and repeatability of the measurements. Half-life and linear response were evaluated over a wide range of activities with different decay schemes. Data analysis was conducted, resulting in half-lives of the 18F, 11C and 68Ga radioisotopes of 109.75 ± 0.35, 20.62 ± 0.34 and 67.82 ± 0.25 min, respectively, with calculated deviations of 0.0167%, 1.00% and 0.29% from expected values. The linear response of the detector over the entire range of desired activity concentrations was confirmed after data correction for the detector dead time. Calibration of the detector combined with the dispenser system was carried out in parallel investigations to provide the required device properties for reference applications in nuclear medicine. Furthermore, Monte Carlo simulations using FLUKA code were performed to investigate the contribution of beta particles in addition to gamma radiations to assess the influence of beta particles on the calibration factors. For better accuracy, a shielding was designed to prevent any beta particles from reaching the detector.

Number-state reconstruction with a single single-photon avalanche detector

Single-photon avalanche detectors (SPADs) are crucial sensors of light for many fields and applications. However, they are not able to resolve photon number, so typically more complex and more expensive experimental setups or devices must be used to measure the number of photons in a pulse. Here, we present a methodology for performing photon number-state reconstruction with only one SPAD. The methodology, which is cost-effective and easy to implement, uses maximum-likelihood techniques with a detector model whose parameters are measurable. We achieve excellent agreement between known input pulses and their reconstructions for coherent states with up to ≈10 photons and peak input photon rates up to several Mcounts/s. When detector imperfections are small, we maintain good agreement for coherent pulses with peak input photon rates of over 40 Mcounts/s, greater than one photon per detector dead time. For anti-bunched light, the reconstructed and independently measured pulse-averaged values of g(2)(0) are also consistent with one another. Our algorithm is applicable to light pulses whose pulse width and correlation time scales are both at least a few detector dead times. These results, achieved with single commercially available SPADs, provide an inexpensive number-state reconstruction method and expand the capabilities of single-photon detectors.

Quantifying bunch-mode influence on photon-counting detectors at SPring-8.

Count-loss characteristics of photon-counting 2D detectors are demonstrated for eight bunch-modes at SPring-8 through Monte Carlo simulations. As an indicator, the effective maximum count rate was introduced to signify the X-ray intensity that the detector can count with a linearity of 1% or better after applying a count-loss correction in each bunch-mode. The effective maximum count rate is revealed to vary depending on the bunch-mode and the intrinsic dead time of the detectors, ranging from 0.012 to 0.916 Mcps (megacounts per second) for a 120 ns dead time, 0.009 to 0.807 Mcps for a 0.5 µs dead time and 0.020 to 0.273 Mcps for a 3 µs intrinsic detector dead time. Even with equal-interval bunch-modes at SPring-8, the effective maximum count rate does not exceed 1 Mcps pixel-1. In other words, to obtain data with a linearity better than 1%, the maximum intensity of X-rays entering the detector should be reduced to 1 Mcps pixel-1 or less, and, in some cases, even lower, depending on the bunch-mode. When applying count-loss correction using optimized dead times tailored to each bunch-mode, the effective maximum count rate exceeds the values above. However, differences in the effective maximum count rate due to bunch-modes persist. Users of photon-counting 2D detectors are encouraged to familiarize themselves with the count-loss characteristics dependent on bunch-mode, and to conduct experiments accordingly. In addition, when designing the time structure of bunch-modes at synchrotron radiation facilities, it is essential to take into account the impact on experiments using photon-counting 2D detectors.

Multi-bit quantum random number generator from path-entangled single photons

Measurement outcomes on quantum systems exhibit inherent randomness and are fundamentally nondeterministic. This has enabled quantum physics to set new standards for the generation of true randomness with significant applications in the fields of cryptography, statistical simulations, and modeling of the nondeterministic behavior in various other fields. In this work, we present a scheme for the generation of multi-bit random numbers using path-entangled single photons. For the experimental demonstration, we generate a path-entangled state using single photons from spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) and assign a multi-qubit state for them in path basis. One-bit and two-bit random numbers are then generated by measuring entangled states in the path basis. In addition to passing the NIST tests for randomness, we also demonstrate the certification of quantumness and self-certification of quantum random number generator (QRNG) using Clauser, Horne, Shimony and Holt (CHSH) inequality violation. We also record the significantly low autocorrelation coefficient from the raw bits generated and this along with CHSH violation rules out multi-photon events and ensure the protection from photon splitting attack. Distribution of photons along multiple paths resulting in multiple bits from one photon extends the limit on bit generation rate imposed by the detection dead time of the individual detector. Thus, the path-entangled states can generate higher bitrates compared to scheme using entangled photon pair which are limited by the coincidence counts. We demonstrate this by generating a high rate of about 80 Mbps when the single photon detector saturates at around 28 Mcps and still show violation of CHSH inequality.

Simultaneous photon counting and charge integrating for pulse pile-up correction in paralyzable photon counting detectors

Objective. In photon counting detectors (PCDs), electric pulses induced by two or more x-ray photons can pile up and result in count losses when their temporal separation is less than the detector dead time. The correction of pulse pile-up-induced count loss is particularly difficult for paralyzable PCDs since a given value of recorded counts can correspond to two different values of true photon interactions. In contrast, charge (energy) integrating detectors work by integrating collected electric charge induced by x-rays over time and do not suffer from pile-up losses. This work introduces an inexpensive readout circuit element to the circuits of PCDs to simultaneously collect time-integrated charge to correct pile-up-induced count losses. Approach. Prototype electronics were constructed to collect time-integrated charges simultaneously with photon counts. A splitter was used to feed the electric signal in parallel to both a digital counter and a charge integrator. After recording PCD counts and integrating collected charge, a lookup table can be generated to map raw counts in the total- and high-energy bins and total charge to estimate pile-up-free true counts. Proof-of-concept imaging experiments were performed with a CdTe-based PCD array to test this method. Main results. The proposed electronics successfully recorded photon counts and time-integrated charge simultaneously, and whereas photon counts exhibited paralyzable pulse pile-up, time-integrated charge using the same electric signal as the counts measurement was linear with x-ray flux. With the proposed correction, paralyzable PCD counts became linear with input flux for both total- and high-energy bins. At high flux levels, uncorrected post-log measurements of PMMA objects severely overestimated radiological path lengths for both energy bins. After the proposed correction, the non-monotonic measurements again became linear with flux and accurately represented the true radiological path lengths. No impact on the spatial resolution was observed after the proposed correction in images of a line-pair test pattern. Significance. Time-integrated charge can be used to correct for pulse pile-up in paralyzable PCDs where analytical solutions may be difficult to use, and integrated charge can be collected simultaneously with counts using inexpensive electronics.

A New Method for Dead Time Calibration and a New Expression for Correction of WDS Intensities for Microanalysis.

Observed photon count rates must be corrected for detector dead time effects for accurate quantification, especially at high count rates. We present the "constant k-ratio" method, a new approach for calibrating dead time for wavelength dispersive spectrometers by measuring k-ratios as a function of beam current. The method is based on the observation that for a given emission line at a specific take-off angle and electron beam energy, the intensity ratio from two materials containing the element should remain constant as a function of beam current, if the dead time calibration is accurate. The method has the advantage that it does not rely on the linearity of the beam current picoammeter, yet also allows the analyst to evaluate the picoammeter linearity, another critical parameter in EPMA calibration. By simultaneously comparing k-ratios for all spectrometers, one can also ascertain k-ratio consensus, essential for inter-laboratory comparisons. We also introduce improved dead time expressions and provide best practices on how to perform these instrument calibrations using this new "constant k-ratio" method. These improvements enable quantitative analysis of major and minor elements with high accuracy at high beam currents, simultaneously with trace elements with high sensitivity, for point analyses and X-ray mapping.

Quantum and non-local effects offer over 40 dB noise resilience advantage towards quantum lidar.

Non-local effects have the potential to radically move forward quantum enhanced imaging to provide an advantage over classical imaging not only in laboratory environments but practical implementation. In this work, we demonstrate a 43dB higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) using a quantum enhanced LiDAR based on time-frequency entanglement compared with a classical phase-insensitive quantum imaging system. Our system can tolerate more than 3 orders of magnitude higher noise than classical single-photon counting quantum imaging systems before detector saturation with a detector dead time of 25ns. To achieve these advantages, we use non-local cancellation of dispersion to take advantage of the strong temporal correlations in photon pairs in spite of the orders of magnitude larger detector temporal uncertainty. We go on to incorporate this scheme with purpose-built scanning collection optics to image non-reflecting targets in an environment with noise.

Towards a Counting Point Detector for Nanosecond Coherent X-ray Science

We present the technical realization of a high-speed hard X-ray single-photon counting-detection scheme based on a commercial avalanche silicon photodiode and high-speed oscilloscope. The development is motivated by the need to perform pulse-resolved photon-correlation and pump-probe studies at synchrotron sources with densely packed pulse patterns that result in high repetition rate pulses on the order of hundreds of MHz. Commissioning experiments are performed at the 1C PAL-KRISS beamline at PLS-II of South Korea operating at a burst mode maximum repetition rate of 500 MHz. In such a high count-rate measurement, detector dead-time can lead to a distortion of counting statistics. We are able to model the counting behavior of our detector under these conditions with a detector dead-time comparable to time between X-ray pulses, implying that nanosecond X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy should be possible at diffraction-limited light sources.

Development of an Organic Plastic Scintillator-based Muon Veto Operating at Sub-Kelvin Temperatures for the NUCLEUS Experiment

The NUCLEUS experiment aims at measuring the coherent elastic scattering of nuclear reactor antineutrinos off nuclei using cryogenic calorimeters. Operating at an overburden of 3 m.w.e., muon-induced backgrounds are expected to be dominant. It is therefore essential to develop an efficient muon veto, with a detection efficiency of more than 99 %. This will be realized in NUCLEUS through a compact cube assembly of plastic scintillator panels. In order to prevent a large unshielded area where the cryostat intersects the shielding arrangement without unnecessarily increasing the induced detector dead time, a novel concept has been investigated, featuring a plastic scintillator-based active muon veto operating inside the NUCLEUS cryostat at sub-Kelvin temperatures. The verification of the key physical aspects of this cryogenic muon veto detector led to the first reported measurements of organic plastic scintillators at sub-Kelvin temperatures. The functionality of the principal scintillation process of organic plastic scintillators at these temperatures has been confirmed. On the basis of these findings, a disk-shape plastic scintillator equipped with wavelength shifting fibers and a silicon photomultiplier to guide and detect the scintillation light has been developed. The NUCLEUS cryogenic muon veto will be the first of its kind to be operated at sub-Kelvin temperatures.

Effective Dead Time of Two Non-Paralyzable Detector Components in Series

Detector dead time losses, caused by both physical components in the detection system and the electronic data acquisition system, are perhaps the most prominent effect in non-ideal detector behavior. Most mathematical modeling methods consider the detector as a single unit with a single dead time parameter, while a true physical detector is often comprised of several serially connected components, each suffering from independent dead time losses. In this study, we develop new formulas for evaluating the dead time losses in a detection system with two serially connected components, each component with a non paralyzing dead time, while assuming that the original count rate has a Poisson distribution. The analytic results obtained are first compared with numeric simulations (showing a very good correspondence) and are then used for numeric investigation of global boundaries of the dead time effect in serially connected systems.

Determination of Appropriate Source-to-Detector Distance Dependence of Gamma Spectrometry System to Achieve Higher Resolution

Operation of gamma spectrometry requires intensive monitoring of gamma ray fluxes. When a radioactive intense source is placed close to a crystal detector, it becomes saturated as a result of detector dead time. On the contrary, when placed far away, there is loss of count statistics. For this reason, optimal position for placing the source has to be investigated. With the improvement in the instrumentation of radiation detection applications over the years, high count rate measurement accuracy is more crucial than ever. This is due to periodic measurement and new correction models for dead time. The aim of this study is to examine the performance of two gamma spectroscopic systems. The source detector distance dependence on dead time, peak-to-compton ratio, overall amplifier gain, FWHM, and voltage variation were investigated using American standard procedures (ANSI/IEE -325). Measurements were performed at five (5) different distances of detector cap for four (4) point sources (Co-60, Eu-152, Cs-137 and Ba-133). Source-to-detector distance at 25 cm was improved to avoid summing coincidence and dead time correction. The results obtained at 25 cm showed that the dead time was found less than 1% as compared to 4 cm. This will describe the stability of dead time. It also indicated that for both detectors the rise in biased voltage will yield a good resolution at 1332.5 KeV. This study is significant as it provides information to ensure that detectors are kept at optimal distance to achieve good dead time.

Performance Improvement for Single-Photon LiDAR with Dead Time Selection

Compared with the impulse LiDAR, the single-photon LiDAR has higher measurement sensitivity in the prominent feature, especially for space-based long-distance imaging. The distance measurement and the detection probability are the critical performance for LiDAR. The ranging of single-photon LiDAR is mainly different from the photon ranging of pulsed LiDAR. Dead time has a significant effect on distance measurement accuracy and detection probability, which are key parameters for detectors when implementing sound control. Therefore, the model of detector dead time, measurement accuracy, and detection probability should be established, and simulation results that meet application requirements should be achieved. Based on the single-photon ranging theory, the dead time, measurement accuracy, and detection probability model of single-photon LiDAR are studied. Furthermore, the systematic simulation of different contrasts is carried out according to the model. The simulation results demonstrate that the model can accurately perform the relationship between dead time and single-photon LiDAR system parameters. The research results can prove the design and verification of single-photon LiDAR dead time.

Minimizing the coincidence error in particle size spectrometers with digital signal processing techniques

Aerosol quantification is highly coveted for many applications ranging from quality monitoring to healthcare. Optical particle size spectrometers are one of the popular measurement devices used in aerosol characterization, which provide information about the size distribution and concentration of the particles. One drawback of this method is that the spectrometers are limited to applications with relatively low concentrations. At high concentrations, the number concentration is underestimated, while the size distribution is shifted towards larger particles. This phenomenon is commonly referred as coincidence error. However, the counting efficiency, above the lower detection limit, depends i. a. on the detector dead time. In order to minimize the probability of coincidence events, the dead time of the detector has to be as small as possible. The contribution of this work is to minimize the coincidence error by purposefully reducing the detector dead time. Therefore, various digital signal processing methods, to minimize dead time, are investigated and experimentally verified. Wavelet and derivative-based peak detection algorithms were found to be able to separate even strongly overlapping scattered light pulses from each other. The results show that the detector dead time can be reduced by 65% with digital signal processing techniques. Allowing the quantification of aerosols with more than 2.9 times the maximum concentration of current optical aerosol spectrometers, without increasing the coincidence error.

Finding Out and Exploration of Two New Equations for Calculating the Dead-time of Neutron Detectors and the Energy of Slow-downed Neutrons

One of the most important issues in nuclear science and technology is neutron detection and optimized usage of neutron detectors. The significance of this issue is to the extent that accurate neutron detection is the most desirable issue in nuclear energy engineering including in the area of nuclear reactors. To better design a neutron detector, many items should be taken into account. One of the items is neutron detector dead-time and its calculation. Nowadays, the dead-time of nuclear radiation detectors is among less-discussed objects and it may usually be neglected. In this research, a new equation for calculating the dead-time of neutron detectors has been found out in a way that applying this equation, the dead-time, which is a very significant issue in radiation detection, is calculated as accurately as possible. In addition, in this paper, the equation associated with the energy of a slow-downed incident neutron is specified. By this equation, the energy of an incident neutron that moves across a path undergoes slowing down and deposits its energy is obtained.

10-nanosecond dead time and low afterpulsing with a free-running reach-through single-photon avalanche diode.

The reduction of detector dead time represents an enabling factor in several photon counting applications. In this work, we investigate the free-running operation of reach-through single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) at ultra-low dead times. By employing a fast active quenching circuit with direct bonding to the detector, we are able to achieve a 10ns dead time with a thick SPAD by Excelitas, still maintaining extremely low afterpulsing probabilities (below 1.5%).

Development of a compact muon veto for the Nucleus experiment

The Nucleus experiment aims to measure coherent elastic neutrino nucleus scattering of reactor anti-neutrinos using cryogenic calorimeters. Operating at an overburden of 3 meters of water equivalent, muon-induced backgrounds are expected to be one of the dominant background contributions. Besides a high efficiency to identify muon events passing the experimental setup, the Nucleus muon veto has to fulfill tight spatial requirements to fit the constraints given by the experimental site and to minimize the induced detector dead-time. We developed highly efficient and compact muon veto modules based on plastic scintillators equipped with wavelength shifting fibers and silicon photo multipliers to collect and detect the scintillation light. In this paper, we present the full characterization of a prototype module with different light read-out configurations. We conclude that an efficient and compact muon veto system can be built for the Nucleus experiment from a cube assembly of the developed modules. Simulations show that an efficiency for muon identification of >99 % and an associated rate of 325 Hz is achievable, matching the requirements of the Nucleus experiment.

Time-dependent POVM reconstruction for single-photon avalanche photo diodes using adaptive regularization

We report on the first realization of time-dependent quantum detector tomography for commercially available InGaAs avalanche photo detectors. For the construction of appropriate time-dependent POVMs from experimentally measured data, we introduce a novel scheme to calculate the weight of the regularization term based on the amount of measured data. We compare our POVM-based results with the theoretical predictions of the previously developed model by Gouzien et al (2018 Phys. Rev. A 98 013833). In contrast to our measurement-based construction of a time-dependent POVM for photon detectors, this previous investigation extends a time-independent POVM to a time-dependent one by including effects of detector timing jitter and dead time on the basis of particular model assumptions concerning the inner physical mechanisms of a photon detector. Our experimental results demonstrate that this latter approach is not sufficient to completely describe the observable properties of our InGaAs avalanche photo detectors. Thus, constructing the time-dependent POVM of a detector by direct quantum tomographic measurements can reveal information about the detector’s interior that may not easily be included in time-independent POVMs by a priori model assumptions.