Detection Of Human Viruses Research Articles

Decadal Journey of CNT-Based Analytical Biosensing Platforms in the Detection of Human Viruses.

It has been proven that viral infections pose a serious hazard to humans and also affect social health, including morbidity and mental suffering, as illustrated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The early detection and isolation of virally infected people are, thus, required to control the spread of viruses. Due to the outstanding and unparalleled properties of nanomaterials, numerous biosensors were developed for the early detection of viral diseases via sensitive, minimally invasive, and simple procedures. To that aim, viral detection technologies based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are being developed as viable alternatives to existing diagnostic approaches. This article summarizes the advancements in CNT-based biosensors since the last decade in the detection of different human viruses, namely, SARS-CoV-2, dengue, influenza, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis. Finally, the shortcomings and benefits of CNT-based biosensors for the detection of viruses are outlined and discussed.

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers: Promising Tool for the Human Virus Detection

Molecular imprinting is an attractive research area for synthesizing unique functional polymers with high selectivity due to template oriented active sites. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have a wide range of applications in chemical and biological sensing, drug delivery, and solidphase extraction owing to mechanical stability, reversibility, reproducibility, and cross-validity. MIPs are compatible with natural antibodies and are being used as antibody mimics/receptors in the biomedical field. Today, viral detection is the most popular research area due to emerging viral diseases with genetic variability and drug resistance. Therefore, there is a need to control viral infections by discriminative recognition of the viral pathogens. This review summarizes the literature on the detection of human viruses by using MIPs.

Application of carbon nanomaterials in human virus detection

Human-pathogenic viruses are still a chief reason for illness and death on the globe, as epitomized by the COVID-19 pandemic instigated by a coronavirus in 2020. Multiple novel sensors have been invented because diseases must be detected and diagnosed as early as possible, and recognition methods have to be carried out with minimal invasivity. Sensors have been particularly developed focusing on miniaturization by the use of nanomaterials for fabricating nanosensors. The nano-sized nature of nanomaterials and their exclusive optical, electronical, magnetical, and mechanical attributes can enhance patient care through the use of sensors with minimal invasivity and extreme sensitivity. Amongst the nanomaterials utilized for fabricating nano-sensors, carbon-based nanomaterials are promising as these sensors respond better to signals in various sensing settings. This review provides an overview of the recent developments in carbon nanomaterial-based biosensors for viral recognition based on the biomarkers that arise from the infection, the nucleic acids from the viruses, and the entire virus. The role of carbon nanomaterials is highlighted by the improvement of sensor and recognition functionality. The Dengue virus, Ebola virus, Hepatits virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza virus, Zika virus and Adenovirus are the virus types reviewed to illustrate the implementation of the techniques. Finally, the drawbacks and advantages of carbon nanomaterial-based biosensors for viral recognition are identified and discussed.

Human virus detection with graphene-based materials

Our recent experience of the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of easy-to-use, quick, cheap, sensitive and selective detection of virus pathogens for the efficient monitoring and treatment of virus diseases. Early detection of viruses provides essential information about possible efficient and targeted treatments, prolongs the therapeutic window and hence reduces morbidity. Graphene is a lightweight, chemically stable and conductive material that can be successfully utilized for the detection of various virus strains. The sensitivity and selectivity of graphene can be enhanced by its functionalization or combination with other materials. Introducing suitable functional groups and/or counterparts in the hybrid structure enables tuning of the optical and electrical properties, which is particularly attractive for rapid and easy-to-use virus detection. In this review, we cover all the different types of graphene-based sensors available for virus detection, including, e.g., photoluminescence and colorimetric sensors, and surface plasmon resonance biosensors. Various strategies of electrochemical detection of viruses based on, e.g., DNA hybridization or antigen-antibody interactions, are also discussed. We summarize the current state-of-the-art applications of graphene-based systems for sensing a variety of viruses, e.g., SARS-CoV-2, influenza, dengue fever, hepatitis C virus, HIV, rotavirus and Zika virus. General principles, mechanisms of action, advantages and drawbacks are presented to provide useful information for the further development and construction of advanced virus biosensors. We highlight that the unique and tunable physicochemical properties of graphene-based nanomaterials make them ideal candidates for engineering and miniaturization of biosensors.

Human Adenovirus, Mesophilic Bacteria and Fungi in Puppies’ Food Marketed in Bulk in Southern Brazil

Background: The Brazilian domestic canine population are the second largest in the world and their feeding means 0.4% of the Brazilian gross domestic product. For maintaining the quality of the food, the companies use worldwide standards for technical prevention and control of contaminants and biological conservation. The packaging is part of this process, since it provides a barrier between food and environment. However, in Brazil, packagings are often opened in retail stores for bulk marketing. The objectives of this work were to develop a methodology to detect viruses in foods and to analyze the bacterial and fungal contamination in puppies’ food sold in bulk in Ivoti and Estância Velha, cities in Southern Brazil. Materials & Methods & Results: Twenty samples collected between September and October 2016 were analyzed for most probable number of coliforms, Salmonella sp., mesophilic aerobic bacteria and yeast/mold following the regulation of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply guidelines. They were also tested for Human Mastadenovirus C (HAdV), Canine Mastadenovirus A (CAdV), and Carnivore Protoparvovirus 1 (CPV) genomes. Viral analysis were performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection. During the collection of the samples hygienic-sanitary conditions, storage of feeds, animals’ access, dog grooming, and veterinary care were considered to evaluate the conditions of each store. A pilot study was carried out using one food sample marketed in bulk and one sample from the original package (closed package) and testing them for bacterial and fungal contamination for standardizing viral detection. Ten grams of food from the original package were mixed with 90 mL of Eagles’ Minimal Essential Medium (E-MEM) in 100 mL sterile bottles. These bottles were kept in room temperature and shaken for 60 min. Subsequently, aliquots were obtained by sequentially diluting the sample (10-2 to 10-4). All final specimens contained 10 mL and each diluted sample was spiked with HAdV-C prototype viral strain (AdV5). A standard solution of HAdV-C was diluted from 3.6x106TCID50mL, (50% tissue culture infective dose) to 3.6x103 TCID50mL, and DNA extraction was performed. Nested-PCR targeting AdV DNApol was performed to detect adenoviruses from different hosts. AdV-positive samples were submitted to nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Specific PCRs were also carried out for CAdV and CPV. Mesophilic aerobic bacteria were detected in all samples and Aspergillus sp. was found in five samples, among which one sample was co-infected with Penicillium sp. One sample was positive for AdV, which was identified as HAdV by sequencing; while coliforms and Salmonella sp. were not detected.Discussion: The presence of fungi with mycotoxigenic potential, such as Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. represents a threat for canines, due to toxins that may persist for a long period even after the fungus is not viable. Moreover, dogs seem to be more susceptible to the effects of the toxins, which is probably because of low glutathione s-transferase activity. Some species of Penicillium sp. genus may produce ocrathoxin A, which nephrotoxic and immunosuppressive effects in dogs are widely reported. Mesophilic bacteria were detected in all samples (at 104 CFU/g) and considered harmless. The detection of human viruses points to the presence of anthropic contamination; on the other hand, ingestion of contaminated feed, even if it is by a heterologous species, turns the dogs into carriers of the virus. In addition, manipulation of those feeds by children who share the same space with dogs can result in gastroenteritis episodes.

Detection of human viruses in rivers of a densly-populated area in Germany using a virus adsorption elution method optimized for PCR analyses

Transmission of viruses via surface water is a major public health concern. To determine the viral concentration in rivers of a densly-populated area in Germany, the virus adsorption elution (VIRADEL) method was optimized for downstream PCR applications. Using a high-salt alkaline phosphate buffer for elution, the median recovery efficiency from spiked 1 l water samples ranged from 21.3% to 100% for JC polyomavirus, human adenovirus type 5, Echovirus 11, and norovirus genogroup I. Analyses of 41 water samples collected during the winter 2007/08 from the rivers Ruhr and Rhine yielded detection rates 97.5% for adenoviruses and human polyomavirus (JC, BK), and 90% for group A rotaviruses. Noroviruses genogroup II were detected in 31.7% of the samples and only one sample was positive for enteroviruses. Virus concentrations ranged from 9.4 to 2.3 × 10 4 gen.equ./l. However, the genome equivalents/liter determined for the RNA viruses and their detection frequency are only lower limits, since the concentration procedure leads to carry-over of inhibitors of the reverse transcription step. Sequence analyses of the PCR products revealed that the adenovirus and rotavirus PCRs used could cross-react with animal viruses from the respective virus families. These results suggest that detection of human polyomavirus genomes is the most sensitive and specific marker for contamination of surface water with viruses from human sewage. Although we could routinely detect nucleic acids of viral pathogens in river water by the PCR-optimized VIRADEL method, threshold levels of viral nucleic acids above which there is a risk of infection with viruses derived from human remain to be determined.

PCR detection of pathogenic viruses in southern California urban rivers.

To investigate human viral contamination in urban rivers and its impact on coastal waters of southern California, USA. Three types of human viruses (adeno, entero and hepatitis A) were detected using nested- and RT-PCR from 11 rivers and creeks. Faecal indicator bacteria as well as somatic and F-specific coliphage were also tested. Approximately 50% of the sites were positive for human adenoviruses. However, there was no clear relationship between detection of human viruses and the concentration of indicator bacteria and coliphage. Both faecal indicator bacteria and human viral input at beaches near river mouths were associated with storm events. The first storm of the wet season seemed to have the greatest impact on the quality of coastal water than following storm events. This study provides the first direct evidence that human viruses are prevalent in southern California urban rivers. Urban run-off impacts coastal water quality most significantly during the storm season. To protect human health during water recreational activities, it is necessary to develop effective strategies to manage urban run-off during storm events.

Detection of human viruses in patients with chronic periodontitis and the relationship between viruses and clinical parameters.

Recent studies have demonstrated that various human viruses, especially cytomegalovirus (HCMV), Epstein-Barr virus type-1 (EBV-1), and herpes simplex virus (HSV), seem to play a part in the pathogenesis of human periodontitis. Little information is available on the relationship between these viruses and clinical periodontal parameters in patients with chronic periodontitis. This study examined the occurrence of HCMV, EBV-1, and HSV in patients with chronic periodontitis and the relationship between these viruses and clinical parameters. A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method determined the presence of HCMV, EBV-1, and HSV. Subgingival plaque samples from 30 patients with chronic periodontitis and 21 randomly selected healthy controls were collected by paper points, and clinical measurements were recorded from both sampling sites and entire dentition. The following indices were measured: plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), probing depth (PD), and clinical attachment loss (CAL). HCMV was detected in 44.3% of chronic periodontitis patients and 14.3% of healthy persons (P < 0.05); EBV-1 in 16.7% of chronic periodontitis patients and 14.3% of healthy persons (P = 1.00); and HSV in 6.7% of chronic periodontitis patients and in no healthy persons. HCMV and EBV-1 detected and undetected sites in patients with periodontitis showed statistically significant differences in sampling clinical depth (SPD) and sampling clinical attachment loss (SCAL). Differences in the measurements of PI of entire dentition and GI of entire dentition between HSV detected and undetected sites were statistically significant. Findings of the present study confirm the frequent presence of HCMV in crevicular samples of chronic periodontitis lesions, and suggest a strong relationship between the presence of HCMV and EBV-1 in subgingival areas and the measurements of probing depth and probing attachment loss.

Viral pollution in the environment and in shellfish: human adenovirus detection by PCR as an index of human viruses.

A study of the presence of human viruses (adenoviruses, enteroviruses, and hepatitis A viruses [HAVs]) in environmental and shellfish samples was carried out by applying DNA and cDNA amplification techniques by PCR. The detection of human adenoviruses by PCR was also examined as a potential molecular test to monitor viral pollution. The samples studied were urban and slaughterhouse sewage, river water, seawater, and shellfish. Enteroviruses were quantified by PFU in Buffalo green monkey kidney cells and fecal coliforms and phages of Bacteroides fragilis HSP40 were also evaluated in some of the samples. The amplification of viral DNA and cDNA has shown a high prevalence of human viruses that would not be detected by the use of classical techniques, such as the quantification of PFU in cell lines. The results of the analysis of slaughterhouse sewage samples together with the test of farm animal feces indicate that the adenoviruses and the HAVs detected in the environment are mostly of human origin. A significative correlation between the detection of human viruses by PCR and the values of bacteriophages of B. fragilis HSP40 in urban raw sewage was observed. Human adenoviruses were the viruses most frequently detected throughout the year, and all the samples that were positive for enteroviruses or HAVs were also positive for human adenoviruses. The results suggest that the detection of adenoviruses by PCR could be used as an index of the presence of human viruses in the environment where a molecular index is acceptable.

Bacteriophages as indicators of pollution

Abstract Water pollution is an undesired reality encountered in many countries. To prevent major outbreaks of infectious disease caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoa that contaminate the water, the scientific community has searched for various indicators that could be used to alert their presence. Among the possible indicators, bacteriophages are receiving increasing attention because of the concern with waterborne viral diseases. This review summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of utilizing bacteriophages as pollution indicators as seen from the somewhat confusing information accumulated from almost 50 years of research and proposes some new directions in the application of bacteriophages as indicators. Bacteriophages have been studied worldwide as pollution indicators because of the ease of their detection and their morphological similarity to human viruses. In addition, detection of human viruses is still a highly skilled and costly process. Generally speak...