Destruction Of Cultural Heritage Research Articles

New investigations in Gaza's heritage landscapes: the Gaza Maritime Archaeology Project (GAZAMAP)

Abstract Decades of conflict in the Gaza Strip have contributed to widely documented cultural heritage destruction, demonstrating a need to monitor vulnerable sites and enhance the empirical base. This article describes how the Gaza Maritime Archaeology Project (GAZAMAP 2022–2023) was developed to monitor coastal and near-coastal sites, collaboratively. Owing to the unprecedented destruction of heritage since October 2023, GAZAMAP's scope has fundamentally shifted.

The question of looted heritage return in contemporary international relations: Middle East as a case-study

The problem of destruction and looting of cultural heritage has long been a serious problem for the international community. Despite a significant number of various multilateral agreements, resolutions and recommendations of international organizations, the methods and means of combating such crimes remain insufficient. This is partly due to the fact that the trade in cultural property is a lucrative business, and countries are in no hurry to introduce strict controls on the movement of artifacts. Countries from which heritage is extracted and sold on the black market are asking for the return of stolen property. This article examines the problem of the return or restitution of cultural heritage to countries of origin on the example of the Middle East region. The study aims to trace the public discourse about the return of stolen artifacts to countries such as Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen from Western Europe and the United States. Using quantitative and qualitative content analysis to study documents, media discourse and official statements, we examine how the issue of restitution and return of heritage, often located in European and American museums, is presented in the public sphere of the countries studied. The results show that the process of “decolonization” of European museums is slow and difficult, since the public consciousness still retains the image of the “other”: a weak, dependent, conflict-ridden, unstable Middle East, unable to take care of its own heritage.

Acceptance of international criminal justice in Bosnia and Herzegovina

When the XIV Winter Olympic Games took place in Sarajevo in 1984, nobody expected that war would begin only seven years later and kill hundreds of thousands of people living in the former Yugoslavia. That millions of them would be ethnically cleansed and displaced, most of them for good. That hundreds of mass graves would be scattered around, and that war crimes unseen in Europe since the Second World War would be repeated. That severe crimes like systematic rape, torture, and massive destruction of cultural heritage and property would finally culminate with genocide. Consequently, Bosnia and Herzegovina (and the countries of the former Yugoslavia) triggered an immense boost in international criminal law and international criminal justice. That experience, during and after the war that took place from 1992 to 1995, can offer lots of valuable input. Not everything that had been done was good or perfect, but it was of great importance for the further development of international criminal law and international criminal justice in a world that is still searching for appropriate responses to the grave war crimes that occur every day, and for the development of mechanisms and practices that will ensure justice for victims and society and be perceived as such. The atrocities of the Bosnian War served as a wake-up call for the international community, highlighting the urgent need for mechanisms to hold perpetrators of such heinous crimes accountable. The establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia marked a significant milestone in this regard, pioneering the prosecution of individuals responsible for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity committed during the conflict. However, challenges persist in ensuring access to justice for all victims and addressing the root causes of conflict to prevent future atrocities. The lessons learned in Bosnia and Herzegovina remain crucial in shaping efforts to achieve lasting peace and accountability worldwide.

Cryptoart: ethical challenges of the NFT revolution

The digital transformation of the art world has become a revolution for the sector. Cryptoart, based on non-fungible tokens (NFT), is attracting the attention of artists, collectors and enthusiasts for its ability to tokenise any element that can be sold as art in the digital market. In this way, it is able to become a scarce resource and an economic asset by encapsulating the market value of a piece of digital art, which may or may not have a reference in the real world. This study will delve into the ethical aspects underlying what is known as the NFT Revolution, particularly impacts related to the abuse or destruction of cultural heritage, speculation and the generation of economic bubbles and environmental unsustainability. To this end, this research has been carried out within the framework of a hermeneutic-critical proposal for analysing, understanding and prescribing cryptoart and its processes. This, methodology, typical of the human and social sciences, critically analyses the current context of the digital transformation of art through the study and interpretation of bibliographical sources and case studies in order to reconstruct the keys and conditions of possibility that guide its development in a fair and responsible way.

Mass Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage during the Hamidian Massacres (1894-1896)

The policy of destruction of the Armenian cultural heritage in the Ottoman Empire began with the conquest of Western Armenia and has continued until the present day. Over the centuries, Armenian culture, as part of the Empire’s Christian culture, has either been destroyed spontaneously, in vast swathes or undergone various manifestations of neutralisationby various Turkish regimes. The first part of this article will outline the approaches made by Genocide study theorists concerning the origin and definition of the term “cultural genocide” existing until today, including the attempts at revising or even re-naming it. The second part outlines the chronology of Armenian cultural heritage destruction. A detailed description of the policy of demolition of the Armenian cultural heritage during Hamidian massacres as a manifestation of vandalism or cultural genocide will also be presented.

Iraqi heritage restoration, grassroots interventions and post-conflict recovery: reflections from Mosul

The deliberate targeting and violent destruction of cultural heritage in Iraq’s ancient city of Mosul by the Islamic State (2014–17) has recently given way to the emergence of heritage initiatives aimed at restoring its urban character and reviving its cosmopolitan spirit. Such restoration projects invariably stir debates over timing, funding and local consultation, as well as their potential to contribute to post-war social cohesion and communal healing. This article argues that in post-conflict settings heritage restoration is always an ambivalent and contingent process, involving the selective use of emotive historic symbols to create new realities. Based on 50 in-depth interviews with a diverse section of Moslawi society and site observations from Mosul (2022–23), the article explores local perspectives and the ongoing dynamic negotiation of heritage restoration. Amidst conflicting communal perceptions of large-scale internationally funded reconstruction projects, the article highlights the potential for grassroots heritage initiatives to offer a new impetus towards communal rehabilitation. The paper focuses on three less examined but locally championed Moslawi heritage sites—the souqs, Qila’yat district and heritage homes. These civic spaces may offer greater opportunity for social recovery through economic development, cultural exchange and everyday co-existence.

Deploying destruction: Islamic State, international actors, and public opinion in Mosul

ABSTRACT Destruction of cultural heritage has increasingly taken center stage in global debates concerning conflict, crimes against humanity, and cultural genocide. From NATO to the UNSC, international bodies and their respective experts are reconsidering how to understand and combat targeted damage in an emerging terrain, where heritage destruction is being leveraged as a weapon of war. Relatedly, those same organizations, alongside government and non-governmental agencies, seek to rebuild historic sites as a means of (post-)conflict recovery, seamlessly tethering material and social renewal. Here we focus on the northern Iraqi city of Mosul in the aftermath of devastation wrought by Islamic State. We present findings from a survey of 1600 residents, revealing local attitudes toward the destruction of sites coupled with the international agencies and preservation programs seeking to manage heritage within the city. While Iraqis generally support heritage initiatives, we demonstrate how they prioritize broader rehabilitation efforts that foreground security and humanitarian aid. These results have implications for current and future projects in Iraq and beyond.

From the Ashes: Guarantees of Non-Recurrence for Destruction of Cultural Heritage

Because cultural heritage is a significant aspect of identity, it is often targeted during conflict or periods of repression. The danger may diminish with peace or transition, but it does not evaporate. Heritage is inherently contentious post bellum, so communities fear for the ongoing safety of their heritage, either because conflict might recur or because past patterns of cultural chauvinism or neglect might be repeated. The material integrity of heritage has gradually become a matter of concern for transitional justice. It has long been a maxim of transitional justice that dealing with the past implies preventing in the future. There is a need for regulatory schema and administrative structures serving the goal of preserving and protecting the tangible cultural riches of the state and/or communities of origin from the lingering threats that the politics of power might again be played out over heritage. Guarantees of non-recurrence (GNR) offer both an ethos and a framework in which to prioritize and think through this work of protection, conservation, and safeguarding. This article argues that the World Heritage Convention, notwithstanding its circumscribed emphasis on material and places of outstanding universal value, is nevertheless applicable to all heritage to which a GNR might be attached and provides an achievable “good enough” practice model, provided there is a threshold level of domestic political will.

The tools of war: conflict and the destruction of Ukrainian cultural heritage

The military invasion of Ukraine has destroyed and damaged extensive built cultural heritage, including churches, museums and monuments. Based on site visits conducted since the invasion, we outline damage to the eleventh-century sites of Boldyni Hory, Chernihiv, and the church, citadel and graveyard at Oster, Chernihiv Oblast.

The Existence of The Blue Shield Emblem on Cultural Heritage Property in Armed Conflict

The intentional destruction of cultural heritage in armed conflict that is not used for military purposes causes the greatest losses of mankind. Lots of cultural properties have great value as the cultural heritage of mankind. Creating the distinctive emblem through the 1954 Hague Convention and its two Protocols d become a crucial way in terms of the protection of cultural properties. Based on these instruments, three categories of distinctive emblem gave for cultural properties over general, special and enhanced protection. It could impact cultural property under unnecessary damage when armed conflict occurred. Therefore, this research d a crucial basic issue on how form, function, and assignation of the distinctive emblem should be, based on the provisions of the 1954 Hague Convention and its two Protocols, as well as related International Humanitarian Law. As the result of this research, it can be said that the existence of a distinctive emblem is remained unclear in terms of its size form and assignation on cultural property. This research ed that the use of distinctive emblem shall be regulated by decisive provisions through a Convention or such a guideline of implementation so that distinctive emblem can be seen by the dispute parties to avoid unnecessary damage to cultural property.

Cultural Heritage of Ukraine in the Context of Russo-Ukrainian War

The difficult and tragic lessons learned of the first year of the full-scale invasion of the Russo-Ukrainian war (24.02.2022– 24.02.2023) showed that cultural heritage, its preservation and restoration is an important component of Ukraine’s national security. Along with the attack on Ukrainian lands, there is an attack on the identity of Ukraine with the aim of depriving it of its cultural heritage. Deliberate destruction of cultural heritage is a war crime and must be prosecuted by an international court under the 1954 Hague Convention, and damage to Ukrainian cultural institutions could become an evidence in a potential war crimes case. The paper analyses the strategic and tactical tasks that the guardians of cultural heritage face, as well as the analysis of the activities and documents of international organizations, and the reaction of the international media to the issue of cultural heritage in the context of the war confirms that the support of the world public of Ukraine, while drawing attention to the acute problems of preserving cultural heritage in rear country. The paper studies the publications in the Western mass media, which were exchanged by members of Europa Nostra in a social-media community created specifically for this purpose—discussing the status of cultural heritage of Ukraine in the war. Through the prism of a professional cultural heritage international organization, this case study allows drawing conclusions for the design of methodical and methodological basis for further study of cultural heritage in the war not only in Ukraine but in general. Based on the analysis, the recommendations for national and international organizations could be provided.

Modernization of the Tourist Services Management System to Prevent Overtourism

Purpose: Development of a model of management of tourist services, which would allow to effectively counteract the negative consequences of overtourism and ensure the sustainable development of the tourism industry.
 Design/Method/Approach: An analytical method was used - the use of statistical data, scientific publications, official reports of tourist organizations to analyze the current state of the tourist market and identify the main problems related to overtourism. A case study method for conducting a detailed analysis of specific examples of tourist areas that have been negatively affected by overtourism and evaluating the measures taken.
 Findings: It is proposed to consider overtourism as a complex problem caused by the uncontrolled growth of the number of travelers in popular territories, which leads to the deterioration of the quality of life of residents and tourist dissatisfaction, the destruction of cultural and natural heritage, environmental damage, infrastructure problems, deterioration. The definition of tourismophobia as an extreme manifestation of overtourism is substantiated; a conceptual model of their relationship is proposed; global approaches to the assessment and prevention of overtourism are generalized to improve the management of tourist services in conditions of excessive tourism. Strategies for regulating overtourism at various stages of the life cycle of tourist destinations have been formed - a strategy for stimulating the development of tourism, a strategy for preventive response, a strategy for limiting tourist activity; a mechanism for managing tourist services based on strategies to overcome overtourism in mature tourist destinations was formed and substantiated; a set of measures to prevent overtourism in tourist areas is proposed.
 Theoretical Implications: The theoretical significance of the research results lies in clarifying and supplementing the understanding of the essence of overtourism and tourismophobia, the accumulation of scientific knowledge in the field of studying the consequences of overtourism for the host territories.
 Practical Implications: The practical significance of the study lies in the modernization of the system of assessment and prevention of overtourism in mature tourist destinations. According to the results of the developed mechanism of regulation of tourist services, taking into account the strategies for overcoming overtourism, it is possible to respond preventively to the main risks of overtourism problems. The author's proposed structural models of the impact of tourism on the population and perception of the destination by visitors, a set of measures to prevent overtourism can be used as a tool for planning the development of tourism.
 Originality/Value: The conceptual and terminological apparatus of overtourism is specified, the aspects of its negative impact on destinations are determined, and the world experience of assessing the impact of overtourism on the host territory is summarized. Strategies for regulating overtourism at various stages of the life cycle of tourist destinations have been formed and, on this basis, proposals for the development and improvement of the mechanism for managing tourist services to prevent overtourism have been formulated.
 Research Limitations/Future Research: The problem of overtourism has turned from local to global in recent years. To solve it, further research and the formation of a set of measures are necessary, which takes into account the interests of all subjects of the tourism and entertainment industry, and will also allow to preserve historical, cultural and natural monuments that constitute the heritage of the entire world society.
 Paper Type: Conceptual
 JEL Classification: F20, L14, R58

Apartament z widokiem na apartament z widokiem. Współczesny rozwój bazy noclegowej w powiecie tatrzańskim z perspektywy lokalnej społeczności

An apartment with a view of an apartment with a view: Contemporary development of accommodation facilities in Tatra County from the perspective of the local community The rapid growth in the number of individual tourist trips to the towns and villages of Podhale, observed nowadays in combination with changes in visitor preferences, in particular the growing share of short stays, higher expectations in terms of standards offered by accommodation facilities and a greater interest in renting separate apartments, coincides with the growing demand for properties to be purchased in tourist resorts in Poland for investment purposes. These processes trigger the expansion of accommodation opportunities, particularly by increasing the number of facilities that offer apartments: houses for rent, self-catering apartment buildings, and aparthotels. Recognising the new trends in the development of accommodation facilities in Tatra County that lead to spatial, social, and economic changes, a study was carried out, aiming to: 1) verify the availability of accommodation facilities, in particular including the scale of the phenomenon of apartment rental of apartments (the data were obtained from available statistical and spatial databases, a field inventory and the Booking.com website), and 2) examine the problems caused by the contemporary development of the accommodation infrastructure in local communities (the data were obtained during interviews with representatives of local communities, n = 74). The study demonstrated well-developed accommodation facilities in Tatra County, characterised by uneven spatial distribution, a large share of informally operating facilities and a rich offer of apartments for rent. The development of accommodation facilities, triggered by mechanisms of the free market, helps to satisfy the fluctuating tourist demand, and consequently to maintain the economic function of tourism in the region. However, on the other hand, it causes numerous spatial and social conflicts. In particular, it leads to excessive intensification of development, dwindling of landscape values, and destruction of cultural heritage (including the vanishing of traditional architecture). Furthermore, it may result in reduced availability of accommodation facilities operated by local residents, as well as in tourism gentrification of Zakopane and loss of the traditional highland character of villages of the Podhale region.

The evolution of the international legal regulation of the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict

INTRODUCTION. In recent decades, there has been an escalation of armed clashes in the territories of African states, the states of the Middle East and Central Asia with the participation of military formations, international terrorist groups that everywhere use the practice of attacking and looting cultural property as a military strategy. In this regard, of scientific and practical interest is a comprehensive study of the legal and organizational foundations of international legal regulation of the protection of cultural property during armed conflicts, evaluation of their effectiveness and identification of promising tasks for the development of additional measures and strategies for the preservation of cultural heritage, taking into account new challenges and threats.MATERIALS AND METHODS. This paper examines the provisions of key international treaties, decisions of the main bodies and specialized agencies of the UN, which together form the existing international legal regime for the protection of cultural property in armed conflict. The author also analyzes the jurisprudence of international criminal justice bodies on bringing individuals to justice for deliberate attacks on cultural sites as part of hostilities. Special attention is paid to the study of scientific works of both domestic and foreign scientists, within which international legal concepts are formed, designed to resolve existing problems in the current international legal regulation of the issue under study, as well as to form promising concepts in the framework of the development of the doctrine of international law. The methodological basis is made up of general scientific and special research methods.RESEARCH RESULTS. According to the results of the study, it was found that during the XX century states have consistently developed norms for the protection of cultural property from threats associated with armed conflicts, while the XXI century was marked by best practice in the application of the rules on liability for attacks on cultural property in situations of armed conflict in the activities of international justice bodies. In addition, it was determined that for the first time in the history of UN peacekeeping, the UN Security Council tested the mandate of the Multidisciplinary Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, in which the peacekeeping contingent, among other things, performed the tasks of protecting, safeguarding and restoring cultural heritage sites together with UNESCO. It seems significant to identify and generalize the prospects for the development of new international legal measures for the preservation of cultural heritage for future generations, taking into account the changing nature of armed conflicts, the intensification of the activities of international terrorist groups and the growing practice of destroying the centuries-old cultural heritage of peoples in the framework of the so-called “cultural cleansing". The topical aspect of the study was the establishment of new approaches of states to the protection of cultural heritage as a means of ensuring international peace and security.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The publication presents the author's objective assessments of the established international legal framework, judicial practice of international criminal justice bodies, as well as doctrinal approaches of both domestic and foreign scientists on the issue of international legal regulation of the protection of cultural property during armed conflicts. Separately, the forms of international legal cooperation of states at the UN site within the framework of the UNESCO profile organization for the development of modern regulatory and organizational foundations for the interaction of the competent authorities of states to prevent and suppress the destruction of cultural heritage, as well as the looting and illegal export of cultural property in the event of an armed conflict, especially terrorist groups.

Understanding Russia’s Actions in Ukraine as the Crime of Genocide (Translation into Ukrainian by Denys Azarov)

This is the Ukrainian-language version of the article previously published in the Journal of International Criminal Justice (Denys Azarov, Dmytro Koval, Gaiane Nuridzhanian, Volodymyr Venher, Understanding Russia’s Actions in Ukraine as the Crime of Genocide, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Volume 21, Issue 2, May 2023, Pages 233–264, https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqad018) by Oxford University Press. The translation is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0. Abstract from an English edition. The new wave of Russia’s aggression against Ukraine that began on 24 February 2022, and the intensification of the armed conflict accompanied by grave breaches of international humanitarian law, has received significant scholarly attention. Many academic interventions have examined the developments in Ukraine through the frameworks of jus ad bellum and jus in bello. Some, however, have applied a genocide lens to make sense of reported numerous and widespread violations of international humanitarian and human rights law. This article contributes to the latter stream of scholarship by contextualizing the arguments for the existence of genocidal intent behind the seemingly unrelated crimes committed by the armed forces of the Russian Federation all over Ukraine. The authors pay particular attention to the language and pseudo-historical references used by Russia’s leaders as a justification for the invasion of Ukraine and argue that these statements and expressions indicate the existence of genocidal intent. This article also reflects on the issue of the systematic destruction of cultural heritage of Ukraine as further evidence of the intent to destroy the Ukrainian nation understood as a protected national group under the Genocide Convention, at least in part. Finally, the authors analyse the genocidal acts that have apparently been committed, including killings; the causing of serious bodily or mental harm; the forcible transfer of Ukrainian children to Russia, and the deliberate infliction of conditions of life aimed at the physical destruction of the Ukrainian nation. It is stressed that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the destruction of the Ukrainian nation by Russia has been pursued through commission of these prohibited acts. Their nature and large-scale character serve as further evidence of genocidal intent to destroy the Ukrainian nation.

Cultural Heritage Under Attack: Motives for Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict in Swat

ABSTRACT This article aims to trace the Taliban’s motives behind the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage in Swat while also looking into the local’s reaction and their relationship with cultural heritage after the conflict. The Taliban insurgents deliberately defaced and dynamited the second largest seated statue of Lord Buddha after Bamiyan in Afghanistan and bomb-damaged Swat Museum. The findings are the outcomes of in-depth interviews and FGDs conducted with locals, key informants from the community, local journalists, NGO representatives, archeologists, and Swat Museum officials. This study demonstrates that the Taliban iconoclastic acts were motivated by their “conflict goal” – the introduction and imposition of Sharia Law in the region. The “specific targeting” of the seated statue of Lord Buddha and the bomb-damaged Swat Museum are considered the principal identifiers of differences, and instrumental in “signalling” strength and commitment to the resisting actors. The polarity in explanations among the locals indicates that the Taliban tactfully manipulated the equivocal understanding of idolatry in Islam. After the conflict, apart from the realization of ownership and pride among the locals, the utmost concerns for them are the protection of cultural heritage and the construction of a religious counter-narrative on the status of idols and statues in Islam.

Illicit trafficking of cultural objects: the case of Cyprus

Rampant unregulated excavation, at a time when archaeological practice was still unknown, opened the way to massive exportation of cultural objects from Cyprus, in parallel with other countries under the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. As ‘antiquarianism’ was concomitant with the beginnings of tourism, places with a rich cultural heritage became popular destinations or stopovers for the steamships. Collecting ‘antikas’ and ‘exploring’ was a pastime of the affluent, and the objects themselves were tokens of prestige, as, by tradition, they continued to be until the very recent past. The demand, not only by private individuals but also by newly established institutions, in the absence of what may now be termed ‘due diligence’, sustained availability. This dispersal forced the Cypriot Ottoman authorities to pass rudimentary legislation: its non-enforcement, however, allowed the trading of antiquities to continue unabated. During British Rule, while some regulations were in place, concerns of a different kind continued to allow the export and sale of antiquities. Bi-communal strife in the early 1960s, shortly after Independence, created sources of illicitly excavated objects which again, found their way into collections within the island or abroad. A second wave of Cypriot cultural heritage destruction followed the invasion of the island by Turkish troops in 1974: a large part of the island in the north was left unprotected and victim to both well-trained and untrained looters. Given this background, Cyprus is faced with a herculean task in remedying the situation. Despite a series of strict antiquities laws and the application of a number of preventive measures, the battle against illicit trading remains, and the past continues to haunt the present.

LINICHENKO V. SIGNS OF GENOCIDE IN THE RUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN WAR

The article is dedicated to defining and analyzing the concept of genocide in order to establish its characteristics in the context of crimes committed against the Ukrainian civilian population by Russia during the full-scale war in Ukraine. This research refers to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, which provides the definition and a list of genocide indicators, such as mass killing, systematic physical and psychological violence, planned destruction of a group, destruction of cultural heritage aimed at the group's destruction, as well as measures aimed at preventing births and transferring children to another group. The article emphasizes the need to identify genocide indicators in crimes against the Ukrainian people and the use of international law to confirm these facts. The research of previous cases of genocide and their analysis is planned to establish analogies with the Ukrainian situation and confirm that Russia's acts of war in Ukraine have intentional character. The recognition of genocide in Ukraine as a theoretical problem is only beginning to be considered by Ukrainian and foreign scientists. Therefore, this study is an attempt to establish the obvious characteristic features of genocide in Ukraine, based on the analysis of foreign cases. The evolution of genocide theories changed from purely legalistic, legal approaches to a more comprehensive understanding of genocide, including ideological, political, and social components. Establishing the facts of genocide is a complex task that requires thorough research and analysis. The first step involves studying previous cases of genocide, such as the Armenian Genocide, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Guatemalan Genocide. This will help establish analogies with the Ukrainian situation and identify common features. Researching international law, particularly the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, will be an important stage. This document provides a clear definition of genocide and a list of indicators that can be used to analyze the situation in Ukraine. It is crucial to maintain international pressure and provide evidence of genocide crimes in Ukraine to attract the attention of the global community and acknowledge these crimes. Preventing similar crimes in the future and protecting the victims should also be key priorities

Genocide by Other Means: Heritage Destruction, National Narratives, and the Azeri Assault on the Indigenous Armenians of Karabakh

The propaganda efforts of the authoritarian Aliyev regime in Baku and the general Western ignorance of the history of the South Caucasus have contributed to the lack of meaningful response to the genocidal aggression that Azerbaijan has inflicted on the indigenous Armenians of Artsakh, known to many as Nagorno-Karabakh. The humanitarian crisis created by the Azeri blockade of the Lachin Corridor is only the most recent step in a process of cleansing the region of its Armenian population, a process that began in the early years of the twentieth century. The Ottoman Turkish genocide of Armenians in 1915–1923 is not a distinct event of the past but a process whose ideology is central to the Azeri-Turkish genocidal violence perpetrated against Armenians in the present. An integral component of the processes of genocide is cultural heritage destruction as noted by Raphael Lemkin. The erasure of most signs of the indigenous Armenian presence on its historic homeland was particularly pronounced in the decades following the Armenian Genocide and continues today. Cultural erasure went hand in hand with Turkish state genocide denial and the rewriting and mythologizing of its national narrative. Azerbaijan has been following a similar playbook since the collapse of the Soviet Union. These genocidal processes of denial, heritage destruction, and the rewriting of history are what I describe as “genocide by other means.”

International Law on Cultural Heritage: The Benefit of Updating the International Community’s Classification of Perpetrators of Cultural Heritage Looting and Destruction

Since the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 1954 (Hague Convention), the international community has committed to the protection and preservation of cultural heritage. Remaining one of the most central dedicated pieces of International Law on cultural heritage, the lack of updated International Law on the concept finding similar levels of success in obligating states and generating new norms regarding cultural heritage has exposed the age of the convention. Absent from the Hague Convention is a proper classification of perpetrators of cultural heritage crimes. In the past, perpetrators have been convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity, yet convictions were linked with other egregious acts. The 2016 International Criminal Court Al-Mahdi Case and United Nations Security Council Resolution 2347 both declaring perpetrators of cultural heritage crimes are war criminals was a significant advancement, yet limited, particularly as war crimes cannot occur during times of peace and the difficulty of International Law’s application of rules of war during non-international conflict. This research project argues that purposeful looting and destruction of cultural heritage can and ought to be considered a crime against humanity. Through this approach, a greater number of cultural heritage crime perpetrators can be held accountable. By educating civilians on the importance of cultural heritage and previous state commitments, increased pressure can be placed on governments to abide by previous international commitments, hold states accountable for actions or inactions, and facilitate further transdisciplinary efforts for cultural heritage protection and preservation.