Desire To Eat Research Articles

Suboptimal Weight Loss 13 Years After Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass Is Associated with Blunted Appetite Response

PurposeBariatric surgery remains the most efficient treatment to achieve a sustained weight loss. However, a large proportion of patients experience suboptimal weight loss (SWL). The exact mechanisms involved remain to be fully elucidated, but the homeostatic appetite control system seems to be involved. The aim of this study was, therefore, to compare the plasma concentration of gastrointestinal hormones, and appetite ratings, between those experiencing SWL and optimal weight loss (OWL) after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB).Materials and MethodsFifty participants from the Bariatric Surgery Observation Study (BAROBS) experiencing either SWL or OWL (< or ≥ 50% of excess weight loss (EWL), respectively) > 13 years post-RYGB were compared to 25 non-surgical controls. Plasma concentrations of acylated ghrelin (AG), total glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), total peptide YY (PYY), cholecystokinin (CCK), and subjective ratings of hunger, fullness, desire to eat (DTE), and prospective food consumption (PFC) were assessed in the fasting and postprandial (area under the curve (AUC)) states.ResultsThose experiencing OWL presented with higher basal AG and GLP-1 iAUC, and lower AG iAUC compared with SWL and controls. Additionally, both bariatric groups presented with higher PYY and CCK iAUC compared to controls. PFC tAUC was also lower in OWL compared to the SWL group. Total weight loss was positively correlated with GLP-1 tAUC and negatively correlated with fasting and tAUC DTE and PFC tAUC.ConclusionsSWL > 13 years post-RYGB is associated with lower basal ghrelin, as well as a weaker satiety response to a meal. Future studies should investigate the causality of these associations.Graphical

Quantification of sensory specific satiety and desire to eat bitter or sweet-bitter infusions of yerba mate in women with normal weight

Among the beneficial properties of yerba mate, it has been proven that it produces a decrease in appetite, weight loss and a decrease in fat deposits. Sensory properties influence the palatability of food and ultimately influence the amount consumed. It is very frequent that infusions of mate alone or sweetened produce judgments of the type "I drink mate and I am satiated". The aim of this study was to quantify the specific sensory satiety (SSS) and the desire to eat (DE) of these infusions in females with normal body weight.Thirty female university students and professors participated, who reported their weight and height to determine the body mass index (BMI). To determine the SSS and DE, 1.2% W/V (MT) mate infusion was prepared, 5% W/V sweetened MT with sugar (MT-A) or Stevia rebaudiana B extract at 0.03% P /V (MT-B). In all cases, the infusions were prepared by placing the mate bag containing 3 g of sample in contact with 250 ml of water at 90 °C for 6 minutes. The infusions were consumed at 70°C. For the SSS and DE evaluations, crackers, vanilla-flavored light yogurt, and unsweetened corn flakes were presented as controls. The consumers evaluated in three sessions the perceived pleasure/desire to eat before and after consuming a 250 ml cup of each infusion and a 4 g portion of the controls using unstructured scales of 100 mm length. The SSS and the DE were calculated as the difference of the magnitudes of pleasure pre and post ingestion introducing the correction factor calculated from the respective magnitudes assigned to the controls. Data were analyzed using the General Linear Model and Tukey's test for post hoc contrasts to check for significant effects of reported SSS or DE for the three infusions. Referring to the BMI, all the women reported weights and heights that denote normal weight (average BMI = 20.9). The appearance of satiety occurs both in MT, MT-A and MT-B (average SSE = -11.8) and there is also a decrease in the desire to eat after mate overload (average DE = -13.5). It can be concluded that the SSS and the DE, which regulate the cessation of intake, are maintained even though the caloric density and the taste of these infusions change. It remains to find out if these mechanisms are down regulated due to the increase in body weight, which would cause a lack of satiety and the desire to eat this type of infusions.

Differences in gastrointestinal hormones and appetite ratings among obesity classes

The aim of this study was to compare gastrointestinal (GI) hormones and subjective ratings of appetite among obesity classes, and between classes of obesity and controls. Ninety-eight adult individuals with obesity, divided into class I (n = 35), II (n = 44) and III (n = 19), together with 45 controls without obesity were included in this cross-sectional analysis. Body weight/composition, and basal and postprandial (after a 600 kcal fixed breakfast) plasma concentrations of acylated ghrelin, active glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), total peptide YY (PYY), cholecystokinin (CCK) and insulin, as well as subjective ratings of hunger, fullness, desire to eat (DTE) and prospective food consumption (PFC) were measured. There were no differences in the plasma concentration of GI hormones (either basal or postprandial) among obesity classes, except for insulin. In general, obesity was associated with impaired secretion of GI hormones. Ghrelin secretion did not decline postprandially in class-III obesity. GLP-1 peak for obesity class I and II was early and lower, while class III showed no postprandial GLP-1 response. Postprandial PYY response for obesity class II and III was absent, and class III showed a delayed and shortened postprandial CCK response. Obesity class II and III had greater basal insulin concentration compared to controls and postprandial insulin was greater in obesity class III versus class II, class I and controls. No differences were found for appetite ratings among obesity classes. In conclusion, obesity is characterized by impaired secretion of GI hormones, with reduced postprandial satiety, particularly in individuals with obesity class III. This abnormal pattern may lead to overeating.

Bad mood food? Increased versus decreased food cue reactivity in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa during negative emotions.

Emotion regulation difficulties in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) might underlie bingeing and purging in BN, extreme fasting in AN, or combinations of these symptoms in binge-purge type AN. In this study, we tested for decreased food cue reactivity in response to negative emotions in AN, and the opposite pattern for BN. Furthermore, we explored subgroup differences (restrictive vs. binge-purging AN; history of AN in BN). Patients with AN (n=41), BN (n=39), and matched controls (n=70) completed an emotional eating questionnaire. In a laboratory experiment, we induced negative emotions and measured food cue reactivity (pleasantness, desire to eat (DTE), and corrugator muscle activity). AN reported emotional undereating, while BN reported emotional overeating. In the laboratory task, BN showed increased DTE and an appetitive corrugator response during negative emotions, selectively towards high-calorie foods. AN showed generalized reduced cue reactivity to high-calorie food regardless of emotional state. This pattern appears to be characteristic of restrictive AN, while cue reactivity of both BN subgroups pointed towards emotional overeating. The emotional over- versus undereating framework might help to explain bingeing and restricting along the anorectic-bulimic disorder spectrum, which calls for novel transdiagnostic theories and subgroup-specific treatments.

Manipulation of fatty acid composition in a high-fat meal does not result in differential alterations in appetite or food intake in normal weight females: A single-blind randomized crossover study

A behavioral concept that generates a path to obesity is eating in the absence of hunger (EAH). One strategy that may be effective in preventing EAH is the manipulation of dietary fatty acid (FA) composition. However, it remains unclear which FA has the greatest impact on both appetite and EAH. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of different dietary FA compositions (monounsaturated, MUFA; polyunsaturated, PUFA; saturated, SFA) on subjective ratings of appetite and subsequent ad libitum eating after a 3 h postprandial period. Sixteen apparently healthy normal weight females between ages 18–40 completed this randomized, single-blind, crossover study. Participants consumed a HF meal (65% energy from fat) rich in SFA, MUFA, and PUFA with an energy content corresponding to 35% of their measured resting metabolic rate on three separate occasions. Visual analog scales were collected while fasted and every 30 min for 3 h during a postprandial period to measure feelings of hunger, fullness, and desire to eat (DTE). Participants were provided an ad libitum buffet meal 3 h after the HF meal. There were no statistically significant differences for ratings of hunger, fullness, or DTE across conditions. Further, there was no significant difference in energy intake during the ad libitum lunch. We conclude that the manipulation of FA composition in a HF meal does not differentially affect appetite sensations or subsequent energy intake.

Effects of Stevia Extract on Postprandial Glucose Response, Satiety and Energy Intake: A Three-Arm Crossover Trial.

Non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) are suggested to lower energy intake in the diet, but they have been paradoxically involved in the epidemic of obesity and Type 2 diabetes. Stevia is the least studied sweetener. This study aims to investigate the effect of stevia on postprandial glucose levels, appetite and food intake. Methods: 30 participants (20 females/10 males; 26.1 (10.56) years; body mass index (BMI) 23.44 (3.42) Kg/m2) took part in a three-arm crossover trial where they received preloads of water, sugar (60 g) and stevia (1 g) on three different days, followed by an ad libitum pizza lunch. Breakfast was standardised. A one-day diet diary was collected on each test day. Visual analogue scales (VAS) were used to assess subjective feelings of appetite. Blood glucose samples were collected at 30-min intervals until 120 min post lunch. Results: Energy intake did not significantly differ between preloads for ad libitum meals (p = 0.78) and overall day (p = 0.33). VAS scores for hunger and desire to eat (DTE) were lower following stevia preload compared to water (p < 0.05). After adjusting for the sugar preload and calorie content, postprandial glucose levels did not significantly differ between interventions. Conclusion: Stevia lowers appetite sensation and does not further increase food intake and postprandial glucose levels. It could be a useful strategy in obesity and diabetes prevention and management.

State and trait influences on attentional bias to food-cues: The role of hunger, expectancy, and self-perceived food addiction

Food-related attentional bias (AB) varies both between individuals (i.e. trait differences) and within individuals (i.e. state differences), as a function of a food's momentary incentive value. People with self-perceived food addiction (SPFA) find food particularly rewarding and may therefore demonstrate increased AB to food-related cues, relative to those who do not perceive themselves as food addicts. However, these trait differences may interact with state factors, such as hunger and the perceived availability of food, to differentially affect AB to food-cues. In the current study, female participants (N = 120) completed an eye-tracking task to assess AB to chocolate pictures in which the expectancy of receiving chocolate was manipulated on a trial-by-trial basis (0%, 50%, 100%). Participants were randomly allocated such that half completed the task when hungry (hungry condition), and half completed the task following a lunch meal (satiated condition). Participants also indicated the extent to which they perceived themselves to be ‘food addicts’ (SPFAs: n = 37; Non-addicts: n = 53; Undecided: n = 28). Consistent with previous findings, there was a significant main effect of chocolate expectancy; food-related AB was greater on 100% and 50% trials, compared to 0% trials. However, there was no effect of hunger condition (hungry vs. satiated) on AB. Contrary to our hypotheses, SPFAs did not show increased AB to food-cues, and this was not moderated by hunger condition or the expectancy information. Exploratory analyses revealed that higher desire-to-eat (DtE) chocolate was associated with increased AB to chocolate pictures. These findings partially support contemporary theoretical models of AB by indicating a key role for state factors (reward expectancy, DtE) in determining AB to food-cues, while a trait factor (SPFA) was not a significant determinant of food AB.

Reliability of hunger-related assessments during 24-hour fasts and their relationship to body composition and subsequent energy compensation

Many diets employ regular periods of fasting that extend beyond a typical overnight fast (i.e. intermittent fasting [IF]). Evaluation of acute fasting responses provides information concerning the potential theoretical rationale for IF. The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the test-retest reliability of hunger-related variables during 24-hour fasts and the relationship between these variables and body composition, as well as subsequent energy intake (EI) after fasting. Eleven participants (6 F, 5 M) completed two 24-hour fasts after being provided a 3-day standardized weight-maintenance diet. From 16 to 24 h of fasting, participants were directly observed and provided hourly assessments of hunger, desire to eat (DTE), prospective food consumption (PFC), fullness and energy. After the fast, participants were allowed ad libitum food consumption, and compensation was calculated as EI relative to weight-maintenance energy needs. Test-retest reliability for hunger-related assessments at particular durations of fasting was evaluated using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), changes in dependent variables were evaluated using ANOVA with repeated measures, and relationships between variables were explored using bivariate correlations. At 16 h of fasting, the ICCs for all hunger-related assessments were statistically significant (r = 0.67–0.91; p ≤ 0.05). However, as the fast progressed, reliability varied substantially. When averaged across the nine measurements, the ICCs were: 0.81 (fullness), 0.74 (PFC), 0.67 (energy), 0.44 (DTE) and 0.36 (hunger). Body fat percentage was significantly correlated with changes in PFC (r = 0.62, p = 0.04), hunger (r = 0.66, p = 0.03), DTE (r = 0.71, p = 0.02), and fullness (r = −0.63, p = 0.04), but not energy (r = −0.16, p = 0.64). Average EI compensation was only 60% of weight-maintenance needs, but substantial variability was observed (7 to 110% compensation). Compensation was significantly correlated with changes in PFC (r = 0.72, p = 0.01), hunger (r = 0.63, p = 0.04) and DTE (r = 0.60, p = 0.05), but not fullness (r = 0.58, p = 0.06) or energy (r = 0.35, p = 0.29). Compensation and body fat percentage were not correlated (r = 0.03, p = 0.94). The percent of energy intake from fat and protein increased after the fast (29.9 to 37.3% and 13.8 to 16.8%; p < 0.05), while the percent of energy intake from carbohydrate decreased (56.4 to 46.0%; p = 0.02). These results may have implications for IF programs. It is possible that the implementation of multiple “test fasts,” in which subjective variables and subsequent energy intake are evaluated, could be used to identify candidates who may be more likely to benefit from an IF program.

Higher Protein Diet Suppresses Appetite at High Altitude

Higher‐protein (&gt;0.8 g protein/ kg body weight/d, &lt;35% total energy intake) diets facilitate weight loss at sea level (SL) in part by suppressing appetite and preserving lean body mass. Though these effects are beneficial during intentional weight loss, protein‐mediated appetite suppression may be detrimental if extant during periods of unintentional weight loss such as those common during sojourns at high altitude (HA). This study aimed to determine the effect of higher protein diets on appetite during HA sojourn. Following a 22d free‐living SL period during which body weight was maintained and volunteers were instructed to consume 1.0 g protein/kg/d, 17 healthy, unacclimated males ([mean ± SD] 23.4 ± 5.6 yr, BMI 26.2 ± 3.6 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to consume diets moderate (1.0 g protein/kg/d, 45% carbohydrate) or higher (2.0 g/kg/d, 45% carbohydrate) in protein, and then ascended to and resided at HA (4300m, Pikes Peak, CO) for 22d. At HA, volunteers subsisted on controlled energy restricted diets providing 70% of SL weight maintenance energy needs, and engaged in prescribed physical activity to induce a 40% total daily energy deficit. Subjective ratings of hunger (H), fullness (F), prospective consumption (PC) and desire to eat (DE) were measured on SL day 13, and HA days 2 and 19 by visual analog scales administered hourly after waking and every 2 min during three meals consumed at a self‐selected pace. Each volunteer consumed the same customized meals and snacks at prescribed times on each of the three days. Total weight loss during HA was −7.9 ± 1.9 kg and did not differ by diet (P‐interaction = 0.64). H, PC, and DE measured both during meals and hourly were lower on HA‐d2 relative to SL (P &lt; 0.05) but did not differ by diet, whereas hourly F was higher (P &lt; 0.05) and did not differ by diet, indicating that appetite was suppressed on HA‐d2 independent of protein intake. On HA‐d19, H, F, PC and DE measured during meals did not differ from SL or from HA‐d2, and did not differ by diet. In contrast, differences between hourly appetite ratings measured on HA‐d19 and those measured at SL and on HA‐d2 were diet‐dependent (diet‐by‐day interaction, P &lt; 0.05). With moderate protein, hourly H, PC, and DE were higher and hourly F was lower on HA‐d19 relative to HA‐d2 (P &lt; 0.05), but did not differ from SL despite prolonged energy deficit. Conversely with higher protein, hourly H, PC, and DE remained lower, and hourly F remained higher than SL on HA‐d19 (P &lt; 0.05). These findings are consistent with rapid appetite suppression upon ascent to HA that appears to diminish, but not fully recover after 17 days of acclimation. That appetite remained suppressed to a greater extent in those consuming higher‐protein diets suggests that such diets could be counterproductive during HA sojourns by contributing to unintentional weight loss. Nutritional regimens for HA sojourns should consider that appetite‐suppressing effects of higher‐protein diets may offset potential favorable effects of such diets for preserving lean body mass during HA‐induced energy deficit. The views expressed in this abstract are those of the authors and do not reflect Dept of Army, Dept of Defense, or U.S. Government official policy.Support or Funding InformationU.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command

Effect of breakfast omission on subjective appetite, metabolism, acylated ghrelin and GLP-17-36 during rest and exercise

ObjectivesBreakfast omission induces compensatory eating behaviour at lunch, but often reduces daily energy intake. This study investigated the effect of breakfast omission on within-day subjective appetite, energy expenditure, substrate utilisation, and appetite hormone profiles, in response to standardised feeding and exercise. MethodsEight male, habitual breakfast eaters completed two randomised trials. Subjects arrived overnight fasted (0 h), and either consumed (BC) or omitted (BO) a standardized breakfast (mean standard deviation [SD]) (3085 [217] kJ). Lunch (4162 [510] kJ) and dinner (4914 [345] kJ) were provided at 4.5 and 10 h, respectively and subjects performed 60 min fixed-intensity cycling (50% VO2 peak) at 8 h. Blood samples were collected at 0, 4.5, 6, and 8 h, with expired air and subjective appetite sensations (hunger, fullness, desire to eat (DTE), and prospective food consumption [PFC]) collected throughout. Heart rate and perceived exertion were measured during exercise. ResultsHunger, DTE and PFC were greater and fullness lower during BO (P < 0.05) between breakfast and lunch, with no differences after lunch (P > 0.193). Resting energy expenditure was greater at 2.5 h during BC (P < 0.05) with no other differences between trials (P > 0.156). Active glucogon-like peptide-1 (GLP-17-36) was greater (P < 0.05) and acylated ghrelin tended to be greater (P = 0.078) at 4.5 h during BC. Heart rate was greater on BO (P < 0.05) during exercise. ConclusionsThe results of this laboratory-controlled study suggest that the effects of breakfast omission are transient and do not extend beyond lunch, even when the negative energy balance created by breakfast omission is sustained via standardised feeding and exercise.

Impact of High and Low‐ FODMAP Interventions on Free‐Living Subjective Appetite

Increases in colonic fermentation have been associated with decreases in subjective appetite, but data specifically on dietary fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharaides and polyols (FODMAPs) are lacking. This single blind, randomized, crossover study examined how changes in FODMAP consumption effect hunger (HUN), satiety (SAT), and desire to eat (DTE) over a 3-day intervention. Healthy participants (20.5±1.7yrs, BMI 22.2±2.4kg/m2) were instructed to follow a low FODMAP (LFD) and high FODMAP (HFD) diet for three days, with an 11-day washout between. Subjects completed visual analogue scales regarding HUN, SAT, and DTE throughout each day. Data from day 2 and day 3 were used for analysis. Data from the 8 compliant participants were analyzed via ANOVA. Fasting HUN was lower on day 2 on the LFD (64.5± 9.74vs.74.43 ±5.7,p=.049). Before bed, subjective HUN was lower with LFD, but not significantly (38.6± 3.82 vs. 53.6± 5.96, p=.06,η2=.52). However, DTE was significantly increased, midmorning, on the LDF (65.4±10.36 vs.43.7±9.73, p=.01),while SAT was significantly increased under HFD, before and after lunch (p=.03 and p=.03). Subjects reported difficulty implementing (6.4±2.1vs.4.8±2.8) and adhering (5.7±1.9vs.4.6±2.4) to LFD. This study indicates that, while fasting hunger may be reduced during LFD conditions, HFD may support SAT more during the day. This, along with expressed difficulty adhering to LFD, raises concerns regarding dietary adherence. Further investigation, with longer interventions is needed.

Eating rate and satiation with a caloric beverage

We have shown enhanced satiation with slow eating. However, subjects drank more water when eating slowly. Thus, we examined the influence of eating rate on satiation when a caloric beverage is offered. In a randomized design, quick (Q) and slow (S) eating rates were compared in 25 females (20.2±4.8y; BMI=21.3±2.2). After a morning of controlled food and beverage intake and activity, they consumed an ad libitum mixed‐macronutrient lunch and apple juice. Hunger (H), satiety, desire‐to‐eat (DTE), and thirst (T) were rated on visual analogue scales every 5min up to 30min, at 45 &amp; 60min. Q and S conditions were compared by paired t‐tests. Meal durations and eating rates were 8±3min &amp; 27±8min, 106±37Kcal/min &amp; 30±9Kcal/min during the Q &amp; S conditions, respectively (P&lt;0.001 for both). S eating decreased food intake (Q=674±140Kcal; S=598±152Kcal; P&lt;0.05) and increased beverage intake as compared to Q eating (Q=128±59Kcal; S=176±86Kcal; P&lt;0.01). However, no differences occurred in total energy consumed at lunch (Q=802±177Kcal; S=774±195Kcal; P&gt;0.05). At 45 &amp; 60min H and DTE were higher in the Q condition (P&lt;0.05). T was lower at 25, 30, 45 &amp; 60min for the S condition (P&lt;0.05). Regardless of the beverage served, eating slowly can effectively decrease food intake, but it tends to increase beverage consumption. Despite similar ad libitum total energy intake, lower H &amp; DTE scores may support a role of slow eating in satiety.

Oral exposure and sensory-specific satiety

Satiety has been shown after oral exposure to food that was chewed but not eaten (Modified Sham Feeding (MSF)). The aim of the study was to explore the role of sensory-specific satiety (SSS) in satiety development with MSF. Subjects were studied on three test days in a randomized crossover design; they received, in random order, water, MSF, or a meal. At the start and the end of each course of the lunch condition subjects evaluated appetite sensations, taste perception and pleasantness of taste using Visual Analogue Scales. SSS was present when eating soup and salad. SSS also occurred with MSF of salad. When eating the soup no significant changes in appetite ratings occurred. Hunger decreased and satiety increased while the salad was eaten ( p < 0.0004). In this condition taste perception did not change significantly and a decrease in pleasantness coincided with an increase in satiety. During the MSF salad taste perception changed, i.e. creaminess and intensity increased ( p < 0.05 and p < 0.02, respectively). When the salad was eaten satiety increased and hunger and desire to eat (DTE) decreased. Chewing the salad resulted only in a decrease in DTE. In this experiment merely chewing a salad produced SSS. We conclude that when SSS takes place during feeding, it is related to an increase in satiety, and a decrease in hunger and DTE. With SSS during MSF, satiety does not increase, nor does hunger decrease, yet DTE decreases. Thus MSF is sufficient for a sensory decrease in DTE despite of lack of satiety.