Desirable Functional Properties Research Articles

Achieving performance and functionality in PLA-based packaging: Insights from hybrid composites with false banana (Enset) fiber and ZnO nanoparticles

The use of poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-based composites reinforced with natural fibers is becoming increasingly popular in sustainable packaging. However, these materials often lack adequate barriers and desirable functional properties. Concurrently, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have been incorporated into PLA-based composites to develop functional packaging films. Despite this progress, there is a gap in the literature regarding packaging materials that require both functional and performance properties, specifically those that combine natural fibers and ZnO NPs within the PLA matrix. This study aims to develop and optimize the effects of ZnO nanofillers and false banana, also called Enset fibers (EFs) as hybrid reinforcements in PLA matrices. A central composite design (CCD) approach was used to evaluate the effects of EFs at three levels (5 %, 15 %, and 25 % w/w) and ZnO NPs at three levels (0 %, 5 %, and 10 % w/w) on the performance (tensile and flexural strength) and functional properties (water and antibacterial activity) of the resulting nanocomposite materials. The findings indicate that the inclusion of ZnO NPs significantly enhanced both the performance and functional properties of the nanocomposites, whereas the inclusion of EFs improved the performance properties but reduced the functional properties of the nanocomposites. Ultimately, this study identified an optimal formulation for producing durable and functional composites for various packaging applications.

Impact of titanium dioxide/graphene in polyvinylidene fluoride nanocomposite membrane to intensify methylene blue dye removal, antifouling performance, and reusability

AbstractThe development of efficient water purification technologies is a critical research focus driven by the crucial role of clean water sources for ecological sustainability. This study explores the strategic incorporation of nanoparticles within polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes as a promising approach to enhance membrane performance for wastewater remediation. PVDF membranes containing varying ratios of graphene (GR) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanocomposites were fabricated via phase inversion method. Characterization techniques including XRD, FTIR, and FESEM‐EDX revealed that the 80% GR nanocomposite membrane exhibited desirable structural and functional properties with pronounced sponge‐like morphology and homogenous nanoparticle distribution. Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy and x‐ray diffraction analysis confirmed the 80% GR membrane retained PVDF crystallinity while uniquely eliminating TiO2 crystallinity. Subsequently, performance testing demonstrated the 80% GR nanocomposite membrane had the highest water flux and methylene blue dye rejection rates compared to other ratios and the pristine PVDF membrane. Both fabricated membranes exhibited sufficient reusability and antifouling properties. However, 80% GR ratio exhibited superior antifouling properties, indicating its potential as an optimal material for improving membrane hydrophilicity and overall water purification technologies. These findings underscore the strategic utility of GR‐TiO2 nanocomposites for enhancing PVDF membrane performance in sustainable wastewater treatment applications.

Pectin and Alginate Functional Biopolymers: Factors Influencing Structural Composition, Functional Characteristics and Biofilm Development

Various natural polymers have been explored for their specific and desirable functional properties. Biopolymers have been found to hold the potential to satisfy many current environmental and health needs from a natural food packaging perspective. With a drive towards a more sustainable and plastic-free future, polymers like pectin and alginate have been considered key to reducing traditional plastic packaging usage in the food industry. These well-established, commercially available biopolymers display unique functional properties that can be manipulated in the development of biofilms that possess specific physical–mechanical properties. Pectin and alginate have also proven successful in the biomedical applications of encapsulation, drug delivery, wound healing and tissue engineering, greatly due to their ability to form biofilms and coatings. The structural and consequent functional properties of pectin and alginate have been investigated, although rarely concurrently with one another, focusing on biofilm development. Research has specifically identified and highlighted the importance of pectin and alginate in developing biofilms due to their versatile and charged structural nature. This review article discusses and highlights factors responsible for the specific properties displayed by pectin and alginate biofilms from a chemical and film development perspective.

Impact of lipid droplet characteristics on the rheology of plant protein emulsion gels: Droplet size, concentration, and interfacial properties

Plant-based meat analogs are being developed to address environmental, sustainability, health, and animal welfare concerns associated with real meat products. However, it is challenging to mimic the desirable physicochemical, functional, and sensory properties of real meat products using plant-based ingredients. Emulsion gels consisting of lipid droplets embedded in biopolymer matrices are commonly used to create products with appearances, textures, and sensory attributes like meat products. In this study, the impact of soybean oil droplet characteristics (concentration, size, and charge) on the physicochemical properties of potato protein gels was studied. The oil droplets were either coated by a non-ionic surfactant (Tween 20) or a plant protein (patatin) to obtain different surface properties. The introduction of the oil droplets caused the protein gels to change from mauve to off-white, which was attributed to increased light scattering. Increasing the oil droplet concentration in the emulsion gels decreased their shear modulus and Young’s modulus, which was mainly attributed to the fact that the oil droplets were less rigid than the surrounding protein network. Moreover, increasing the oil droplet size made this effect more pronounced, which was attributed to their greater deformability. Competitive adsorption of proteins and surfactants at the oi-water interface in the Tween emulsion promoted emulsion instability. This research highlights the complexity of the interactions between oil droplets and protein networks in emulsion gels. These insights are important for the utilization of emulsion gels in the formulation of plant-based foods with improved quality attributes.

Optimization of Roasting Conditions on the Functional Properties of Jackfruit Seed Flours

Roasting of jackfruit seeds may improve the functional properties of jackfruit seed flours produced, which is vital for applications in baking and confectionaries. The objectives of this study were to determine the optimum roasting conditions of jackfruit seeds and to evaluate the functional properties of roasted jackfruit seed flours. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize the roasting process in a temperature range (120 - 170 ℃) and in a duration range (20 - 70 min). The roasting temperature had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on water absorption capacity (WAC) and water solubility index (WSI), while roasting time significantly influenced (p ˂ 0.05) WAC, oil absorption capacity (OAC), bulk density (BD), WSI and swelling power (SP) of the jackfruit seed flours. Based on the results obtained from RSM, the optimum roasting conditions were 162 ℃ for duration of 20 min. The predicted values were 1.45 g/g, 0.96 g/g, 0.49 g/ml, 9.74 % and 4.35 g/g for WAC, OAC, BD, WSI and SP, respectively with the overall desirability of 0.693. The optimum conditions obtained from RSM can be used to produce roasted jackfruit seed flours with desirable functional properties for future development of bakery products.

Profiling of bioactive compounds identified in functional gummies by metabolomics analysis using High-Resolution Accurate Mass-Spectrometry

The consumers demand for healthier and fortified products received much attention these days. The main aim of this study was to prepare functional gummies that contain beneficial bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, terpenoids, polyphenols, and phenolics. The gummies were prepared using varying concentrations of jamun pulp and pear pomace powder, which are both known for their health benefits. Optimization of the prepared gummies was done on the basis of their antioxidant profile. The bioactive compounds found in the gummies were characterized by High-Resolution Accurate Mass-Spectrometry. These bioactive compounds were divided into different categories, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, as well as terpenoids. Analytical characterization was employed to identify both known and unknown bioactive compounds and metabolites in the optimized product. The results showed that the optimized gummies (FG3) exhibited desirable sensory, textural, and functional properties. FG3 contains a substantial amount of dietary fibre and bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolics, triterpenes, which exhibits health benefits such as anti-cancerous, anti-inflammatory etc., Overall, the developed gummies provide a promising solution to address health-related issues.

Characterization of soy curd residue and full-fat soy flour as protein-based food ingredients

The study investigated the soy curd residue and full-fat soy flour as potential protein-based food ingredients. Standard protocols were used to determine proximate parameters, functional properties, markers of oxidative stability under shelf storage, colour (CIE L* a* b*), and microbial quality of the flours. Commercial Afayak soybean varieties were used to prepare soy curd residue flour and two differently treated soy flours, namely full-fat soy flour and cold-water extracted full-fat soy flour. Findings from the study indicate that processing treatment and storage time significantly (p<0.001) affected the parameters measured. Cold-water extraction of full-fat soy flour resulted in a significantly (p<0.001) higher protein content denoting 1.0, and 1.2-fold than full-fat soy flour and soy curd residue, respectively. Full-fat soy flour showed the highest peroxide, acid, and p-anisidine (p < 0.001) under processing and storage conditions. Soy curd residue was the most oxidatively stable among the samples; however, it was noted that cold-water extraction of full-fat soy had better oxidative stability than full-fat Soy flour. After 12 weeks of storage, peroxide and acid values were below the acceptable limit of 10 mEq/Kg and 0.6 mg/KOH/g, respectively. The study supports the hypothesis that the proximate composition, physicochemical properties, and oxidative stability of soy-based flours are affected by the sample processing method and storage time. The study concludes that the samples characterized in this study are oxidatively stable, protein and energy-rich and may be ideal ingredients for food product development with desirable functional properties.

Enhanced functional properties of pea protein isolate microgel particles modified with sodium alginate: Mixtures and conjugates

Protein microgels are emerging as versatile soft particles due to their desirable interfacial activities and functional properties. In this study, pea protein isolate microgel particles (PPIMP) were prepared by heat treatment and transglutaminase crosslinking, and PPIMP were non-covalently and covalently modified with sodium alginate (SA). The effects of polymer ratio and pH on the formation of PPIMP-SA mixtures and conjugates were investigated. The optimal ratio of PPIMP and SA was found to be 20:1, with the optimal pH being 7 and 10, respectively. PPIMP-SA conjugates were prepared by Maillard reaction. It was found that ultrasound (195 W, 40 min) enhanced the degree of glycation of PPIMP, with a highest value of 37.21 ± 0.71 %. SDS-PAGE, browning intensity and FTIR data also confirmed the formation of PPIMP-SA conjugates. Compared with PPIMP and PPIMP-SA mixtures, PPIMP-SA conjugates exhibited better thermal stability, antioxidant, emulsifying and foaming properties, which opens up opportunities for protein microgel in various food applications.

Structural and Physiological Properties of Footwear Textiles

Abstract Textile uppers in the form of fitted knitted fabrics are now gaining in importance in the production of commercial footwear. The subject of this study was twelve different textile uppers and two reference leather materials. Structural properties and parameters of physiological comfort were characterized for selected variants. In order to analyze the thermo-physiological properties of the upper parts of the footwear, air permeability, thermal insulation properties, water vapor permeability and sorption properties were measured. Among the variants of textile uppers analyzed, the most desirable functional properties were shown by knitted fabrics made on cylindrical crochet machines of large diameters. The varnished cowhide leather variant was characterized by the worst hygienic properties.

Natural hydrocolloids as biocompatible composite materials for food applications

Consumer demands for more sustainable approaches towards traditional food-related products made natural hydrocolloids a focus of the modern food industry. Featuring biocompatibility, availability and unique physicochemical properties, hydrocolloids are infiltrating the trending production of guilt-free food alternatives and biodegradable functional food packaging. Recent research has highlighted the challenges in creating these products, which can be solved by a deeper understanding of the interactions between the components of a complex hydrocolloid-based mixture. This review summarizes the applications of natural hydrocolloids as promising multifunctional materials for innovative technologies that prioritize safety and sustainability of food-related products. It also provides an overview of their features with a focus on the gelling behaviour and ways to improve the hydrocolloid matrix to produce the materials with the desired texture, smell, appearance and functional properties.<br>The bibliographyincludes 563 references.

Research Note: Transcriptome analysis of skeletal muscles of black-boned chickens, including 2 types (wild and mutated) of Taihe black-boned silky fowl and 1 type (wild) of Yugan black-boned chicken

The large amount of melanin deposited in Taihe black-boned silky fowl and other black-boned chicken breeds is a highly valued trait due to its desirable nutritional and functional properties, such as antiaging, immune-enhancing, and antifatigue properties. To identify the candidate genes and pathways potentially responsible for melanogenesis in Taihe black-boned silky fowl, digital gene expression tag (DGE-tag)-based transcriptome analyses were performed for 2 groups: wild-type Taihe black-boned silky fowl (TH-1245) vs. mutated Taihe black-boned silky fowl (BY-1245) and TH-1245 vs. wild-type Yugan black-boned chicken (YG-1245). In total, 430 and 765 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and 13 DEGs displaying different gene expression patterns between the 2 groups were considered valuable for further investigation, such as ANKRD1, MYOZ2, and MYOD1. Furthermore, 6 functionally grouped networks composed of 36 significant GO terms, mainly involved in muscle-related and signaling-related biological processes, were screened by functional enrichment network analysis. In addition, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis identifies 2 top clusters containing 20 hub genes for 2 comparison groups. MYL1 and RPS14 were considered the most potential candidate genes among all hub genes. The Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) results showed that the terms and pathways, such as muscle system process, arachidonic acid metabolism, melanogenesis, and tyrosine metabolism, may play important roles in the melanogenesis and further investigations were needed to clarify the relationships between these pathways and melanin. Overall, these results are helpful for furthering our understanding of melanogenesis in breast muscle of Taihe black-boned silky fowl and Yugan black-boned chicken.

Comparative analyses of the bacterial communities present in the spontaneously fermented milk products of Northeast India and West Africa.

Spontaneous fermentation of raw cow milk without backslopping is in practice worldwide as part of the traditional food culture, including "Doi" preparation in earthen pots in Northeast India, "Kindouri" of Niger and "Fanire" of Benin prepared in calabash vessels in West Africa. Very few reports are available about the differences in bacterial communities that evolved during the spontaneous mesophilic fermentation of cow milk in diverse geographical regions. In this study, we used high throughput amplicon sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA gene to investigate 44 samples of naturally fermented homemade milk products and compared the bacterial community structure of these foods, which are widely consumed in Northeast India and Western Africa. The spontaneous milk fermentation shared the lactic acid bacteria, mainly belonging to Lactobacillaceae (Lactobacillus) and Streptococcaceae (Lactococcus) in these two geographically isolated regions. Indian samples showed a high bacterial diversity with the predominance of Acetobacteraceae (Gluconobacter and Acetobacter) and Leuconostoc, whereas Staphylococcaceae (Macrococcus) was abundant in the West African samples. However, the Wagashi cheese of Benin, prepared by curdling the milk with proteolytic leaf extract of Calotrophis procera followed by natural fermentation, contained Streptococcaceae (Streptococcus spp.) as the dominant bacteria. Our analysis also detected several potential pathogens, like Streptococcus infantarius an emerging infectious foodborne pathogen in Wagashi samples, an uncultured bacterium of Enterobacteriaceae in Kindouri and Fanire samples, and Clostridium spp. in the Doi samples of Northeast India. These findings will allow us to develop strategies to address the safety issues related to spontaneous milk fermentation and implement technological interventions for controlled milk fermentation by designing starter culture consortiums for the sustainable production of uniform quality products with desirable functional and organoleptic properties.

Ex Vivo Functional Benchmarking of Hyaluronan-Based Osteoarthritis Viscosupplement Products: Comprehensive Assessment of Rheological, Lubricative, Adhesive, and Stability Attributes.

While many injectable viscosupplementation products are available for osteoarthritis (OA) management, multiple hydrogel functional attributes may be further optimized for efficacy enhancement. The objective of this study was to functionally benchmark four commercially available hyaluronan-based viscosupplements (Ostenil, Ostenil Plus, Synvisc, and Innoryos), focusing on critical (rheological, lubricative, adhesive, and stability) attributes. Therefore, in vitro and ex vivo quantitative characterization panels (oscillatory rheology, rotational tribology, and texture analysis with bovine cartilage) were used for hydrogel product functional benchmarking, using equine synovial fluid as a biological control. Specifically, the retained experimental methodology enabled the authors to robustly assess and discuss various functional enhancement options for hyaluronan-based hydrogels (chemical cross-linking and addition of antioxidant stabilizing agents). The results showed that the Innoryos product, a niacinamide-augmented linear hyaluronan-based hydrogel, presented the best overall functional behavior in the retained experimental settings (high adhesivity and lubricity and substantial resistance to oxidative degradation). The Ostenil product was conversely shown to present less desirable functional properties for viscosupplementation compared to the other investigated products. Generally, this study confirmed the high importance of formulation development and control methodology optimization, aiming for the enhancement of novel OA-targeting product critical functional attributes and the probability of their clinical success. Overall, this work confirmed the tangible need for a comprehensive approach to hyaluronan-based viscosupplementation product functional benchmarking (product development and product selection by orthopedists) to maximize the chances of effective clinical OA management.

High internal phase emulsion stabilized by whey protein isolate-gum Arabic Maillard conjugate: Characterization and application in 3D printing

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) stabilized by protein-polysaccharide are attracting considerable attention in the food industry and have been used in the emerging 3D printing. However, research on protein-polysaccharide Maillard conjugates with health-promoting effects used in HIPEs and 3D printing is limited. Developing HIPEs with enhanced stability, printability, and desirable functional properties remains a challenge. This study was aimed to investigate the potential of whey protein isolate-gum Arabic Maillard conjugates (WPI-GA-C) as emulsifiers for stabilizing HIPEs and to prepare HIPEs with improved properties for personalized functional foods and 3D printing. The effects of WPI-GA-C concentration and oil mass fraction on the properties of HIPEs were systematically characterized. The results showed that the WPI-GA-C concentration and oil mass fraction had significant effects on the particle size, processability, and textural, rheological and 3D printing properties of HIPEs. The HIPEs stabilized with 3% WPI-GA-C and 80% oil mass fraction exhibited better self-supporting properties, higher viscosity, higher storage modulus, and lower frequency dependence compared with HIPEs prepared with lower WPI-GA-C concentrations (1% and 2%) and lower oil mass fractions (74% and 77%). The prepared HIPEs could be used as food-grade 3D printing inks to print models with good dimensional printing accuracy. In conclusion, WPI-GA-C could be used to prepare stable HIPEs as potential inks for 3D printing. These results provided new insights into personalized functional food applications with protein-polysaccharide Maillard conjugate stabilized emulsions.

Probiotic Potential, Antibacterial, and Antioxidant Capacity of Aspergillus luchuensis YZ-1 Isolated From Liubao Tea.

Aspergillus fungi are widely used in the traditional fermentation of food products, so their safety risks and functions are worthy of investigation. In this study, one Aspergillus luchuensis YZ-1 isolated from Liubao tea was identified based on phylogenetic analyses of sequences of three genes coding for internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), β-tubulin (benA), and calmodulin (CaM). The results of hemolytic activity, DNase activity, cytotoxicity assay, and antibiotic resistance assay indicated that the strain is potentially safe. The excellent gastrointestinal fluid tolerance, acid tolerance, bile tolerance, auto-aggregation, co-aggregation, cell surface hydrophobicity, and adhesion to human colon adenocarcinoma (HT29) cell line were observed on analysis of the probiotic properties. Furthermore, the results of the antibacterial activity of A. luchuensis YZ-1 indicated that the strain had strong antagonistic effects against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as fungi. Simultaneously, the water extracts and 80% ethanolic extracts of A. luchuensis YZ-1 cells also showed strong ABTS, DPPH, and OH- scavenging ability. Taken together, our results suggest that A. luchuensis YZ-1 has desirable functional probiotic properties and can be proposed as a biocontrol agent in the food industry.

Effects of rice protein on the formation and structural properties of starch-lipid complexes in instant rice noodles incorporated with different fatty acids

Herein, the influence of rice protein (10%, w/w) on the formation of indica rice starch-lipid complexes in pure indica rice starch (IRS) system, and the influence of rice starch-lipid complexes formed in instant rice noodles (IRN) after the incorporation of fatty acids (FAs) on in vitro starch digestion were systemly evaluated. The viscoelastic properties of IRS samples increased after the incorporation of protein and lipids. The V-type diffraction intensity in IRS-lipid samples compounded with protein was greater than that of IRS-lipid samples supplemented without protein. In comparison to natural IRN samples, IRN fortified with FAs (especially for LOA) displayed significantly higher relative crystallinity (35.76%) and resistant starch content (14.42%). As shown by SEM, the microstructure of IRN incorporated with SA and LOA presented more denser and regular lamellar structures than those supplemented with shorter-chain FAs; confirmed by the significantly increased short-range order structure and better thermal stability. Collectively, this research may provide a deep understanding on how these three macronutrients (starch, protein, and lipids) interactions taken place during food processing, which might be helpful to develop novel stable foods with desirable digestive and functional properties in an innovative pathway.

Deciphering the Mechanistic Basis for Perfluoroalkyl-Protein Interactions.

Although rarely used in nature, fluorine has emerged as an important elemental ingredient in the design of proteins with altered folding, stability, oligomerization propensities, and bioactivity. Adding to the molecular modification toolbox, here we report the ability of privileged perfluorinated amphiphiles to noncovalently decorate proteins to alter their conformational plasticity and potentiate their dispersion into fluorous phases. Employing a complementary suite of biophysical, in-silico and in-vitro approaches, we establish structure-activity relationships defining these phenomena and investigate their impact on protein structural dynamics and intracellular trafficking. Notably, we show that the lead compound, perfluorononanoic acid, is 106 times more potent in inducing non-native protein secondary structure in select proteins than is the well-known helix inducer trifluoroethanol, and also significantly enhances the cellular uptake of complexed proteins. These findings could advance the rational design of fluorinated proteins, inform on potential modes of toxicity for perfluoroalkyl substances, and guide the development of fluorine-modified biologics with desirable functional properties for drug discovery and delivery applications.

An architecture decomposition method of pneumatic catapult system based on OPM and DSM

The architecture strategy of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) pneumatic launch system should continue to evolve to adapt to complex and variable operating environments. Architecture representation, decomposition perspective, and cluster analysis play a vital role in the early phase of system architecture development. In order for the system to emerge anticipated and desirable intrinsic functional properties, an architecture decomposition method based on the Object-Process Methodology (OPM) and Design Structure Matrix (DSM) is put forward in this paper. The OPM is proposed to model the UAV launch process formally, and the matrix representation of the architecture of the pneumatic launch system is established. After the extension of the definition and operations of DSM, with the Idicula-Gutierrez-Thebeau Algorithm plus (IGTA + ) clustering algorithm, the transformation of the pneumatic launch system architecture from process decomposition to function decomposition is demonstrated in this paper. The analysis shows that the architecture decomposition of the pneumatic launch system meets the functional requirements of stakeholders.

Processing of defatted meal of forage radish seed with pressurized aqueous ethanol: Glucosinolate removal, phytochemical extraction and obtaining processed meal

In this study, pressurized aqueous ethanol (PAE) was used for the processing of defatted meal (DM) obtained from forage radish seeds, aiming to obtain two products: an antioxidant extract and processed defatted meal (PDM). In this context, the effects of the solvent ethanol concentration (25, 50 and 75 wt%) on the global extraction yield (GEY) and chemical nature of the products obtained were investigated. The extraction performed with PAE/75 wt% ethanol provided a lower GEY but reduced the loss of soluble proteins to the extract phase, promoting greater selectivity for the extraction of phenolic compounds, which resulted in an extract with greater antioxidant capacity. The total glucosinolate content of the DM was reduced with the application of PAE. The PDM obtained showed desirable nutritional and functional properties. It was demonstrated that the application of PLE allowed the concomitant production of a detoxified defatted meal rich in proteins, with potential application in human and/or animal food, and an extract rich in phytochemical compounds, which can be applied in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry, promoting the valorization of the by-product of biodiesel production from a non-food raw material, little explored and with great potential.

Molecular simulation of partially denatured β-lactoglobulin

The unfolding of β-lactoglobulin (β-lac) upon heating was comprehensively studied through molecular dynamics computer simulations. A β-lac molecule in the aqueous solution was firstly heated at 500 K for unfolding and then annealed at 300 K to collect stable conformations. There were five meta-stable conformations observed based on the Free Energy Landscape (FEL). The β-lac molecule was found to exhibit an open and extended conformation on heating followed by limited refolding upon cooling. The cysteine residues –SH121 and S–S66-160 in the most open conformation were located at the opposite ends of the β-lac molecule. This would favour the intermolecular –SH/S–S interchange reactions that are known to occur in β-lac as part of the inter-molecular aggregation process. Furthermore, the unfolding of the β-lac increased the hydrogen bond forming capacity between water molecules and the protein and between water molecules themselves. The interactions and the properties of the water molecules in the protein hydration shell also indicated that the hydration shell was stabilized by protein unfolding. However, it was found that the unfolding of β-lac increased diffusion of hydration water molecules, including those in the first hydration shell that interact more strongly with the protein. This may partly explain why unfolded proteins are more likely to aggregate even though there were more hydration water molecules protecting them. Such results provided more detailed information on the structure-functionality relationship of β-lac based on both the protein molecule and its hydration shell. This provides insight into how we can control the processing of proteins for desirable functional properties such as thickening and gelation, which are modified through protein-water interactions.