Learning Design Principles Research Articles

Neuroscience-Informed Design of Learning Materials: Examining the Impact of Emotion, Interest, and Attention on Learning

The impact of emotional design on learning, particularly related to emotional valence, is a topic of interest in the domain of online and distance learning. This study, situated in the South African private higher education context, sought to explore how students learn and why certain learning materials better promote learning than others. The study used psychophysiological assessments, including eye-tracking, galvanic skin responses, and facial expressions, to explore the relationship between emotional arousal, interest, and attention in online learning. Nineteen students aged 18 to 24 were shown 11 different variations of an online module's first page, each differing in design elements, for 9 seconds to gauge their initial reactions. Emotional responses were measured using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), and qualitative discussions provided further insights into students' preferences. The findings produced valuable recommendations for instructional design that fosters interest and enhances the learning experience. By integrating neuroscience techniques and educational psychology principles, the study established a link between emotion, interest and attention as key factors influencing student engagement and memory retention. This finding is significant as it highlights the importance of designing learning materials that capture students' initial interest, providing valuable insights into the universal principles of effective learning design. It emphasises the importance of emotional design in learning materials and the need for a balance between emotional arousal that generates interest but avoiding cognitive overload. The study underscores the critical role of purposeful learning design in creating engaging and effective learning experiences for students.

Students as collaborative partners

In contemporary society, Artificial Intelligence (AI) pervades numerous facets of our lives and is likely to impact many sectors and professions, including education. Tertiary-level students in particular face challenges regarding the use of AI for studies and assessment, including limited understanding of AI tools, as well as a lack of deep critical engagement with AI for learning (Shibani et al., 2024). To respond to emerging developments in generative AI, the recent Australian Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) report suggests tertiary-level learning and assessments be designed to foster responsible and ethical use of AI (Lodge et al., 2023). This involves the development of AI literacy among students to engage with AI in critical, ethical ways that aid their learning and not hinder it. Our project aims to narrow the AI literacy gap among students from diverse study backgrounds by providing foundational knowledge and developing critical skills for practical use of AI tools for learning and professional practice, in collaboration with students and academics as part of a Students as Partners (SAP) initiative. Staff bring expertise in AI critical engagement and students bring practical, first-hand experiences of learning in this collaboration, supported by the university’s SAP program. Building on the current UNESCO recommendations for the use of generative AI in education (UNESCO, 2023) and prior theoretical frameworks on AI literacy (Chiu et al., 2024; Ng, et al., 2021; Southworth et al., 2023) we target key skills that higher education students should develop to meaningfully engage with AI. By creating accessible and engaging resources, such as instructional videos and comprehensive guides on generative AI applications like ChatGPT and ways to prompt for enhancing learning, we introduce existing AI tools and teach students to use them effectively, promoting a hands-on learning environment. Using learning design principles, the developed curriculum will be presented in an AI Literacy module on a Canvas site, with supporting instruction workshopped with student participants for evaluation. Student cohorts recruited from diverse disciplines will pilot and assess the effectiveness of the program, and qualitative methods such as focus groups and interviews will be used for evaluation of our intervention and continuous improvements. Findings will inform tertiary students’ current level of AI literacy and the effectiveness of interventions to improve key skills beyond their disciplinary knowledge, better preparing them for life beyond university. Indeed, the implementation of similar AI literacy courses has demonstrated statistically significant improvements in AI literacy and understanding of AI concepts amongst university students (Kong, Cheung, & Zhang, 2021). Our approach underscores the importance of relational engagement in higher education with students as partners (Matthews, 2018) and participatory design with students in a topic that is significant in the current age of AI (Laupichler et al., 2022). The course's flexibility to be accessed directly or embedded into other curricula ensures scalability and broader impact, solidifying the validity of our multifaceted approach. Through utilising relevant research methodologies and learning design principles, we endeavour to create an AI literacy course that is robust, accessible, educational, and engaging to use by tertiary-level students from diverse study backgrounds.

Building Bridges

One of the major challenges faced in learning design is fostering effective collaboration between Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) and learning designers (LDs) in the implementation of new pedagogies and learning technologies (Gottler, 2023). This area of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) practice is still emerging in nature, with an acknowledged need for more examples of effective approaches (Pollard & Kumar, 2022; Tay et al., 2023). The importance of this collaboration is amplified by the fact that both SMEs and LDs share a key stakeholder—the learner. To ensure the learner benefits fully, both parties must work together seamlessly, drawing on their complementary skills to deliver a learning experience that is both meaningful and impactful (Pollard & Kumar, 2022). This presentation serves as a case study, showcasing the processes used by the Institution’s LD team to build positive collaboration with SMEs to integrate new pedagogies and learning technologies in the development of asynchronous mathematics modules. In particular, this project involved the integration of two learning design principles, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) (CAST, 2024; Mayer, 2024), that were foreign to the SMEs, and learning technology that had not been used previously at the Institution in the form of lightboard video recordings. In the initial stages of this project, the Institution’s LD team encountered many of the issues previously reported in literature regarding working with SMEs, such as ambiguity of roles and tasks, power struggles between SMEs and LDs, and SME resistance to the use of new education technology and pedagogies (Chen & Carliner, 2020; Tay et al., 2023). To overcome these issues and to ensure the success of the project, a new approach was developed that prioritised clarity, communication and the common goal of building an excellent learner experience. The new approach drew on research into the factors that facilitated or hindered the relationship between SMEs and LDs, and included the following core principles: Mutual respect: LDs worked to build an environment where the expertise and time commitments of both SMEs and LDs were acknowledged and valued (Tay et al., 2023). Shared commitment: Processes were introduced to ensure that project goals were well defined and that a shared vision for the learning modules was established to foster a strong investment in the project's success (Chen & Carliner, 2020). In particular, we placed the learner experience at the centre of decisions regarding module design, by setting the student as the core “stakeholder” in design workshops. Common language: Steps were taken to establish a common language between SMEs and LDs by defining terms and processes to facilitate clear communication (Gottler, 2023). Empowering expertise: Both SMEs and LDs were empowered to contribute their unique skills to the project and given autonomy to make decisions during the design and implementation process (Chen & Carliner, 2020). For example, we acknowledged the expertise of our SMEs in classroom teaching and chose to record teaching videos without a formal script, yet based on an agreed scope and examples. This presentation will expand on how these principles were enacted practically to foster a strong partnership between SMEs and LDs characterised by effective communication, positive relationships and a strong sense of ownership of the project. The presentation will conclude by illustrating how this collaborative approach ultimately led to the successful completion of the project within constraints such as competing priorities and firm deadlines.

Navigating the places we now inhabit

Learning design involves creating educational opportunities that are engaging and effective. In many countries, this process must attune to indigenous ways of being and knowing. In the context of Aotearoa New Zealand, the learning design process requires the ability to create culturally inclusive learning opportunities that are respectful of Maori culture, but also beneficial to all learners - a process that calls for deeper reflection and understanding of tikanga Maori (Maori customs and practices). This paper highlights the experiences of migrant learning designers and teachers in Aotearoa New Zealand, who work at the intersection of Maori knowledge and Western educational practices. As non-indigenous immigrants, learning designers, teachers, and educational researchers, the authors drew on autoethnography as the methodology, to analyse and reflect on their role as allies of Maori, the indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand. This research aims to find and share ways of reconciling principles of learning design with different ways of knowing, whilst honouring the Maori culture. The paper contributes to wider debates in education that discuss how indigenous knowledge systems can enrich modern educational practices.

Digital Escape Room

Scheduled during the final two weeks of a practicum internship, this asynchronous online lesson for preservice teachers focuses on Flow Theory and provides first-hand experience with agentic instruction to deepen students’ pedagogical understandings and promote future implementation of such practices. Applying principles of inquiry-based learning and digital escape room design, students are tasked with completing the digital escape room to rescue their instructor who has been trapped in a digital world by his jealous colleagues. Delivered through the Canvas learning management system, students seemingly enjoy the activity, despite occasionally struggling, and some students plan their own digital escape rooms as a result of this activity.

By design

This paper takes a design research approach to the challenge of transforming learning and teaching in higher education (HE) as it is experienced at the level of an interdisciplinary team composed of content matter experts and specialists in education. It is based on the reflections of members of the team working collaboratively to transform an undergraduate biology unit, delivered in intensive mode in parallel with a standard teaching semester to improve both student engagement and teaching staff satisfaction. The unit learning design tests 21st century active learning pedagogies in the context preparing students for their professional lives. Using semi-structured interviews and reflective inquiry the authors attempt to uncover the salient features of the process of implementing technology enhanced learning, and generate constructive design solutions. The work is situated in the scholarship of learning and teaching as it encourages "reflection-in-action" and a commitment to sharing what works in STEM teaching and learning in contemporary environments. The teaching team focus on the complex problems of preparation, attendance, and engagement in a series of intensive labs, whilst the professional staff focus on the complex problems of innovation and student engagement in higher education. A number of known and hypothetical learning design principles are integrated with the affordances of the chosen learning environment (OneNote) and used to propose plausible solutions. These solutions are used to iteratively refine the learning environment and reveal new design principles. The data shows improved staff engagement with the unit and the students through an enhanced role in the application and development of modern pedagogies. The paper emphasises the benefits of providing for and supporting the emergence of microcultures, and suggest strategies for those that wish to emulate the approach taken.

Application of artificial intelligence as a knowledge creation instrument in tax procedures

This study set out to find whether deep learning algorithms neural networks and self-organizing maps could be utilized in a value-adding way in the Finnish Tax Administration in the handling of income tax related claims by limited liability companies. According to research positive outcomes in artificial intelligence (AI) utilization have been attained outside Finland. The research was carried out according to the action design research method in which the focus of the research is concurrently building a suitable artifact for the organization and learning (design principles) from the creation and intervention itself. Research began with problem formulation followed by building, intervention, and evaluation. As a result, the project team consisting of three members created two functional artifacts: one based on neural networks, and another based on self-organizing maps. Creation of the artifacts was done in cycles as alpha, beta and gamma where alpha and beta were a neural network and gamma a self-organizing map. Alpha reached a macro average of 0.75–0.78 in classification and beta 0.77–0.79. Gamma gave a different point of view on the problem and was able to clearly identify the class's non-estimated customers in a topographical map. The artifacts were limited to function only as knowledge creation instruments due to legal and ethical limitations present in the context. Results suggest that it is recommendable to approach problems with more than one artifact. The preliminary results of this research were validated by applying the concept in a case organization, followed by an analysis of the results in an end-user setting.

Can basic design be the base of urban planning education?: A case-oriented quantitative measurement model

The study of design is considered as a scientific activity; however, the integration of urbanism with design thought has remained limited, which can easily be observed in the contemporary urban areas, especially in the developing countries. Thus, increasing design thinking ability and the integration of spatial planning should be a priori within urban planning and design education, and thus be practiced preventing the emergence of chaotic urban spaces. The widespread view is that basic design education increases the planning and design skills of students; therefore, it is offered during the first stage of planning education. Within the scope of the basic design courses, students experience using and transferring the formatting tools such as line, stain, texture, color, volume, light-shadow, abstraction, and perspective effectively. They learn design principles such as suitability, unity, sovereignty, contrast balance, repetition, direction, measure, range, value, motion, and hierarchy. Gestalt visual perception principles adopted by the Bauhaus school of design are often applied in basic design education. The process is completed by providing technical drawing lessons on principles and abstraction parameters. Teaching is a planned process, and objectives are determined through the cognitive-affective and psychomotor learning areas known as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains. So, is the current education paradigm accurate and measurable? Is it possible to utilize it to improve planning and design education? For this purpose, this study researches the contribution of basic design learning outcomes to the urban planning studios and the relationship between achievement levels of students in relevant courses through knowledge and attitude tests. The research model is a case study, based on the relational analysis of quantitative data, which quantitatively propounded that the relationship between two different teaching processes is linear and positive.

Four design principles for student learning of substantive historical concepts – a realistic review study

Substantive historical concepts are an essential part of the history curriculum. In contrast to the use of meta-historical concepts, this aspect of historical thinking has received relatively little attention from educational scholars in recent years. This article draws on theory from cognitive developmental psychology, and seeks to apply this in the field of history didactics. In order to foster authoritative judgement in its application in history education, research evidence is synthesised. A realistic review methodology was used to conduct this synthesis. Four context-mechanism-outcome configurations were identified: (1) when working memory is overloaded, effective learning is impossible; (2) to acquire knowledge sustainably, it must be stored as a schema in long-term memory; (3) knowledge is learned more effectively when it builds on previously acquired knowledge; and (4) knowledge will gradually become more easily accessible for working memory. These context-mechanism-outcome configurations stimulate insight into, and long-term memory of, substantive historical concepts. Didactic design principles for teaching substantive historical concepts are proposed, and implications for history education are illustrated and discussed.

기초디자인 교육을 위한 BMS 조형원리 연구

This study proposes a method to enhance the efficiency of basic design education for students with little to no prior experience in design or fine arts. The proposed method focuses on applying essential formative design principles, referred to as formative BMS principles in this study. It provides concise information on a broad range of general design concepts such as proportion, contrast, balance, harmony, emphasis, unification, and change to support students in learning design principles intuitively, quickly, and easily. Moreover, tools, phenomena, situations, and so on that are commonly found in daily life are used as materials to implement design principles. Subsequently, cases of transforming daily materials into valuable design works are introduced to describe the relationship between these cases and formative BMS principles, which are explained from visual (quantitative) and conceptual (qualitative) perspectives in a way that facilitates a factual and specific approach to design. In addition, the proposed method comprises three processes that help students effectively learn about the relationship between design and formative BMS principles. This method enables students to recognize the significance of the comprehensive thinking required for design-based production, systematically develop practical layout expression techniques, and increase the aesthetic value of design outcomes, thereby amplifying design learning effects.

Multimedia design for learner interest and achievement: a visual guide to pharmacology.

Medical education increasingly relies on digital learning materials. Despite recognition by the Association of American Medical Colleges Institute for Improving Medical Education, medical education design often fails to consider quality multimedia design principles. Further, the AAMC-IIME issued a call to study the role of design principles in medical education. Thus, the current study investigated the cognitive and affective effects of redesigning PowerPoint slides used to support pharmacology content during the preclinical years of medical school training. Researchers implemented a quasi-experimental design, using traditionally-designed (original) slides with a Traditional group (n = 100) and slides redesigned to follow principles from the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning with an Experimental group (n = 40). Participants in the Experimental group completed a post-survey incorporating the Situational Interest Survey for Multimedia to indicate motivational engagement with the media. Students in the Experimental group also responded to additional preference questions. Researchers analyzed survey responses and students' scores in pharmacology-related coursework across the preclinical Foundations Phase of training to determine the impact on achievement and motivation. Findings related to learner achievement showed a modest but significant increase in the Experimental group compared to the Traditional group in the Cardiac, Pulmonary, and Renal (CPR) educational block (105%, normalized to Traditional group, p = 0.013) and cumulative pharmacology grades (101%, normalized to Traditional group, p = 0.043). Additionally, participants in the Experimental group indicated a significantly higher average triggered situational interest in redesigned slides (M = 4.85, SD = 0.25) than the original slides (M = 3.23, SD = 1.40, t=-6.33, p < 0.001). Similarly, the interest rating of the redesigned slides (M = 4.87, SD = 0.24) was significantly greater than that of the original slides (M = 3.89, SD = 0.86, t=-6.824, p < 0.001). Moreover, results further indicated significant differences in the maintained-feeling and maintained-value constructs, and all participants in the Experimental group indicated a preference for the redesigned slides. The findings provide strong evidence in support of using the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning design principles to intentionally design media in medical education. In addition to increased achievement scores, students in the Experimental group demonstrated significantly higher levels of situational interest in the redesigned slides, especially triggered interest and maintained-feeling interest. Medical education learning designers should seriously consider redesigning media to achieve similar results.

Nirmana Motion Graphic Video: Innovation in Learning Design Principles and Elements

The use of technology in education has become increasingly important in facilitating effective learning. However, the lack of diversity and innovation in using technology to develop learning materials poses new challenges for educators. In response, this research aims to develop and test the feasibility of a motion graphic video called Nirmana, which includes learning materials on design elements and principles. The research and development (R&amp;D) process applied the ADDIE model to develop the motion graphic video media. The media testing involved 101 design major students. The data collection used questionnaires, observations, interviews, and documentation, which were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative methods. The result of this research is a Nirmana motion graphic video with learning materials about the elements and principles of design. The media was field-tested based on student assessment using the mean results per aspect. The assessment criteria included clarity of information and instructions, media attractiveness, usability and accessibility of media, and material arrangement and use of illustrations. The results showed that the Nirmana motion graphic video media received good to excellent scores on all of these assessment criteria. Specifically, the clarity of information and instructions received a good score of 78.7%, the media attractiveness received an excellent score of 81.7%, the usability and accessibility of media received an excellent score of 89.6%, and the material arrangement and use of illustrations received an excellent score of 85.8%. These results indicate that the developed Nirmana motion graphic video media is suitable for use as a design learning media. Furthermore, this research suggests that using technology to develop relevant and innovative learning materials can positively impact student attitudes and interest in learning design.

Digital game-based language learning for vocabulary development

Current literature suggests that one of the impressive benefits of digital game-based language learning is its potential to create engaging vocabulary learning experiences. However, this literature is dominated by game-play approaches, rather than game-making approaches. Drawing upon constructivist, motivation, dual-coding, and constructionist theories, this study examined elementary English language learners’ vocabulary learning experiences in a game-based learning context and investigated their experience as they built their own games based on their understanding of different non-fiction texts. This mixed-methods case study involved novel use of network analysis to examine student learning, investigate the relationships between various aspects of learner experiences, and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the program. Findings indicated that a complex set of interdependencies between enactments of theoretical principles including generativity, agency, tinkering, intrinsic motivation, and contextualized learning lead to enjoyment and powerful language learning experiences. Design principles for future digital game-based language learning include optimizing visual aspects, spending more time on technical skill development, increasing learner agency, and focusing more on generative and joyful learning experiences.

Heutagogical Design Principles for Online Learning: A Scoping Review

ABSTRACT In higher education, heutagogical design principles may be utilized to foster active teaching and learning to engage learners in an online learning environment. This research study aims to investigate the application of heutagogical design principles such as exploration, creation, collaboration, connection, reflection, and knowledge sharing. Therefore, a scoping review was conducted to identify and analyze the potential use of heutagogical design principles across a variety of online instructional approaches, including personalized learning, peer learning, smart learning, self-regulated learning, independent learning, learner-centered learning, facilitative learning, collaborative learning, free-choice learning, and lifelong learning within the theoretical framework of heutagogy. The results revealed that the most frequent instructional approaches included collaboration, self-regulation, personalization, and lifelong learning. Thus, instructional approaches encouraged students to connect with peers and instructors within the facilitative learning environment. As a result, instructors developed students’ 21st century skills in the scope of engaging, meaningful, and experiential learning environments. Online teaching and learning in higher education might be diversified based on heutagogical principles and instructional approaches and their subsequent implementation in the context of higher education.

Enhancing Creativity and Problem-Solving: Design Principles for Project-Based Learning in Product Design

This conceptual paper addresses the need for effective pedagogical strategies to enhance creativity and problem-solving skills in product design education. The study aims to explore how Design Principles can be integrated into Project-Based Learning (PBL) to foster these critical skills. Using a comprehensive literature review, the study synthesizes existing theories, focusing on constructivist learning and Design Thinking models. The findings suggest that structured design principles, such as user-centered design and iterative development, significantly improve the efficacy of PBL in developing students’ creativity and problem-solving abilities. However, challenges such as inconsistent PBL implementation and insufficient teacher training limit its effectiveness. The study highlights the need for empirical validation and suggests future research focus on testing the proposed framework in real-world educational settings. The findings have practical implications for educators, providing a structured approach to enhance skill development in product design through PBL.

A Humane Social Learning-Informed Metaverse: Cultivating Positive Technology Experiences in Digital Learning Environments.

Online environments, such as metaverses, provide distinct social environments for people to engage in complex, cognitive, and multidirectional learning and meaning-making experiences. These engaging and influential environments highlight important factors associated with the Social Learning Theory (a process through which external settings influence behavior in specific environments). According to this theory, environments provide a space for youth to engage in reciprocal interactions of interpersonal, behavioral, and environmental cues. Online environments designed by social media companies have been scrutinized, given their dependence on algorithms (artificial intelligence systems). Research has revealed the effects of systems that use machine learning to subversively maintain engagement on their platforms for as long as possible. Given the constant changes in socializing environments, younger generational cohorts need to be adequately prepared for systems that determine what type of content they are exposed to, and shape the timing, frequency, and agentic influencers they engage with. Therefore, this article proposes a necessity to expand our understanding about social learning and current technology design principles. This article demonstrates the need for a paradigm shift toward exploring an innovative construct referred to as the digital learning environment. We examine existing issues in the design of digital spaces, provide a positive developmental psychology framework that informs further research, and propose solutions for researchers, educators, policymakers, and caregivers as they navigate healthy technology use and predominant mental health issues in the 21st century.

Engaging Meaningful Learning Design Principles in a Gamified Desktop VFE for Geoscience Education

Geoscience higher education is increasingly adopting extended reality (XR) experiences, notably virtual field trips, to overcome challenges in integrating fieldwork into courses. However, emphasizing XR technology highlights shortcomings in physical field trip experiences for meaningful learning, raising concerns about student access. To address these issues, a prototype desktop virtual field experience was developed using the Meaningful Online Learning (MOL) framework. The design was tested in a large introductory geology course using a case study approach. Subsequent feedback informed improvements and the design was re-tested for the same course during a different semester. Results illustrate the importance of involving students in defining meaningful learning in an experience and hold implications for using the MOL framework early in the design process.

Learning design principles that cultivate future-oriented students

The use of technology-enhanced learning in higher education has increased significantly. While this has led to greater flexibility in delivery and enhanced engagement with students (), it has also placed additional demands on already time-poor educators. Despite the potential benefits, many educators struggle to engage with learning design in a meaningful way, leading to suboptimal student experiences. Despite the prevalence of technology, students are being made to engage with outdated learning strategies and content. This poster shares learning design strategies for time-poor educators to enact in online learning environments to support future-oriented thinking skills of students. Stack and Bound (2021) see future-orientedness as the ability for students to “face future unknowns and new challenges beyond the immediate course/training. The emphasis is on the ability to resolve unfamiliar or non-standard problems. To be able to do this, future-orientedness involves many of what are variously called 21st century skills, or the new ‘top 10 skills’, such as critical thinking, creativity, learning to learn”. Dondi et al. (2021) identified 56 essential skills they think all citizens will need in the future world of work. We will focus on the skills outlined in the cognitive category: critical thinking and mental flexibility. Abrami et al. (2014) in their study outlined two instructional interventions that foster critical thinking skills; the opportunity for dialogue and exposing students to authentic or situated problems particularly when applying problem solving and role-playing methods. Li et al. (2022) in their paper concluded the following: connecting students with resources and facilitating interaction, technology significantly impacts the fluency and flexibility dimensions of creativity. Flexible learning time, cumulative learning processes, and problem-based activities promote the ongoing development of creative behaviours, enhancing fluency, originality, and elaboration in different dimensions of creativity. We will use the 4 domains of the Technology Enhanced Learning Accreditation Standards (TELAS) (2023) framework to outline future-oriented learning design strategies taken from our experience in supporting learning and teaching: Online learning environment Using interactive elements, such as H5P (an open-source JavaScript content collaboration framework), provides multiple perspectives on single issues in an engaging way. Multiple viewpoints for a complex situation or case study can help students evaluate and compare perspectives and provides exposure to multiple points of view. Learner support Providing content in multiple modes and with compelling ‘teacher talk’ to explain what content is there, how they should engage with the content they’re provided and why. Explicitly calling out transferrable skills and capabilities covered in a subject or assessment. Learning and assessment tasks Authentic assessments, especially project briefs provided by industry, give students a chance to respond to authentic, complex, and integrated assessments relevant to their future profession. Providing wicked problems help students to be familiar with and confident in ambiguous settings and encourages lateral thinking. Learning resources Use of techniques such as Socratic and open-ended questioning to have students research some of their own learning. You don’t have to provide all of the answers! It is not about providing all of the knowledge to students, but in supporting their ability to think critically and ask the right questions to find the right information. This future-orients students to be able to problem solve and critically interrogate new and changing information.

Teaching Chest Tube Insertion by Blended Learning: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis.

Emerging technologies are being incorporated in surgical education. The use of such technology should be supported by evidence that the technology neither distracts nor overloads the learner and is easy to use. To teach chest tube insertion, we developed an e-learning module, as part of a blended learning program delivered prior to in-person hands-on simulation. This pilot study was aimed to assess learning effectiveness of this blended learning, and cognitive load and the usability of e-learning. The interactive e-learning module with multimedia content was created following learning design principles. In advance of the standard simulation, 13 first-year surgical residents were randomized into two groups: 7 received the e-learning module and online reading materials (e-learning group); 6 received only the online reading materials (controls). Knowledge was evaluated by pre-and post-tests; technical performance was assessed using a Global Rating Scale by blinded assessors. Cognitive load and usability were evaluated using rating scales. The e-learning group showed significant improvement from baseline in knowledge (P = .047), while controls did not (P = .500). For technical skill, 100% of residents in the e-learning group reached a predetermined proficiency level vs 60% of controls (P = .06). The addition of e-learning was associated with lower extrinsic and greater germane cognitive load (P = .04, .03, respectively). Usability was evaluated highly by all participants in e-learning group. Interactive e-learning added to hands-on simulation led to improved learning and desired cognitive load and usability. This approach should be evaluated in teaching of other procedural skills.

Design principles for simulation-based learning of hypothesis testing in secondary school

ABSTRACT This study contributes to the call for influencing practice by increasing attention to how learning environments can be designed to support learning in statistical inference. We report on a design experiment in secondary school (students 14–16 years old), that resulted in a set of lessons with the learning goal of teaching students how to apply concepts and principles of hypothesis testing for making an inference as to whether or not students in secondary school can taste the difference between two brands of cola soda. The design experiment resulted in four design principles for a simulation-based approach for learning hypothesis testing in secondary school. The design principles highlight the combination of practical and digital simulations of samplings. They stress the need for using random generators that allow for high reliability in collecting sample data and introduce a simulation-based method for determining p-values, i.e. to quantify how likely or surprising a sample result, or a result more extreme, is under a null hypothesis.