Depressogenic Inferential Styles Research Articles

Cognitive Vulnerabilities to Depression for Adolescents in Single-Mother and Two-Parent Families.

Although research consistently suggests that adolescents in single-mother families are at increased risk for depression, the mechanisms that explain this relationship are unclear. In a community sample of adolescents (N = 368; ages 12-16; 50 % female; 50 % White) and their mothers (42 % single), adolescents completed measures of depressive symptoms, rumination, and depressogenic inferential style at baseline and two yearly follow-ups. Mothers reported on stressful events that occurred in the child's life from birth until baseline. Adolescents raised by single mothers, relative to partnered mothers, experienced more childhood stressors and higher rumination levels at 1-year follow-up. Additionally, higher rumination mediated the relationship between single motherhood and greater youth depressive symptoms at the 2-year follow-up. Clinical implications and developmental considerations are discussed.

Do dysfunctional attitudes and depressogenic inferential styles predict positive life events?

Although research has indicated that dysfunctional attitudes (DA) and depressogenic inferential styles (DIS) lead to depression when negative life events occur, little is known about how these factors function when negative life events do not occur. This longitudinal study examined the hypotheses that DA and DIS at Time 1 would lead to positive life events at Time 2 (four weeks later) in the absence of, but not in the presence of, negative life events at Time 2. This study also examined whether the effects of DA and DIS on positive life events differ depending on initial levels of depression. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that in the prediction of positive events, interactions of DA and DIS with negative events and depression were not significant. The main effect of DA was significant and positive; the main effect of DIS was significant and negative. The results indicate that the effects of DA and DIS on positive events differ, and the effects do not depend on the frequency of negative events.

Factores asociados prospectivamente a sintomatología depresiva en adolescentes tempranos de sexo femenino

Este estudio analiza prospectivamente la relación entre soporte familiar, estilo inferencial depresogénico y rumiación negativa con sintomatología depresiva en adolescentes. Se focaliza en adolescentes de sexo femenino, donde la depresión es más prevalente. Participaron 142 estudiantes de primer año de secundaria, con un promedio de edad de 14.2 años. Las evaluaciones de seguimiento fueron a 6, 13 y 24 meses de la primera evaluación. Controlada la depresión inicial, se observó relación entre soporte familiar y estilo inferencial depresogénico con sintomatología depresiva. Los resultados respaldan las teorías cognitivas de la depresión e indican la importancia de considerar estos factores en los programas preventivos de depresión.

Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Children: An Idiographic, Longitudinal Examination of Inferential Styles

The present study examined the applicability of the hopelessness theory in children in the third grade. Participants included 206 students (111 boys and 95 girls) whose average age was 8.47 (SD = 0.56) years. Participants completed self-report measures assessing inferential styles at baseline, and negative events and depressive symptoms six times over a 7 weeks period. Results showed that depressogenic inferential styles concerning the self interacted with negative events to predict depressive symptoms during the follow-up, and that depressogenic inferential style for causes did not. These findings are believed to help resolve past controversy concerning inferential styles by suggesting that depressogenic inferential styles predict depressive symptoms even at a young age. Methodological and clinical implications from the present study are discussed.

Temporal Relationships Between Inferential Style and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents

Although many studies have assessed the role of cognitive styles as predictors of changes in depression, few have assessed the role of depression as an antecedent of such cognitive styles. The goal of this study was to assess the reciprocal temporal relationships among symptoms of depression, inferential style, and stressors. For this purpose, 358 adolescents (197 girls and 151 boys, ages between 15 and 17 years) were assessed at the beginning of the school year and at follow-up 6 months later. They completed measures of depressogenic inferential style (Adolescent Cognitive Style Questionnaire; Hankin & Abramson, 2002), negative life events, and depressive symptoms. A fully cross-lagged design panel was used, and the results indicated that the inferences about causes and consequences of events, both alone and in interaction with stressors, significantly predicted an increase in depression symptoms at follow-up. Moreover, significant paths were obtained between depression at baseline and the increase of st...

A Test of the Integration of the Hopelessness and Response Styles Theories of Depression in Middle Adolescence

The current study examined several theories of depression in a sample of middle adolescents. At Time 1, 367 ninth graders completed measures assessing depressogenic inferential styles, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood, and depressive symptoms. Six weeks later, participants completed measures assessing negative events and depressive symptoms. In line with the hopelessness theory, a depressogenic weakest link interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness depression symptoms but not in more general depressive symptoms. Further, providing partial support for the response styles theory, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood predicted increases in hopelessness depression symptoms but not in more general depressive symptoms. Contrary to the integrative theory, the relationship between a depressogenic weakest link and increases in hopelessness depression symptoms following negative events was not moderated by a ruminative response style.

Conceptualizing Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Youth: A Comparison of the Weakest Link and Additive Approaches

The current study examined whether the relationship between four cognitive vulnerability factors (e.g., depressogenic inferential styles, dysfunctional attitudes, self-criticism, and rumination) is best captured by an additive or a weakest link approach. Fifty-six children (ages 7-14) of affectively ill parents completed measures assessing depressive symptoms and cognitive vulnerability factors. Subsequently, children were given handheld personal computers (HP Jornada 720) to carry with them for the next six weeks. Computers signaled the children to complete measures assessing depressive symptoms and negative events once a week at a randomly selected time. Results provided full support for the weakest link approach towards conceptualizing vulnerability. More specifically, children who possessed a depressogenic weakest link were more likely than children who did not to experience elevations in depressive symptoms following elevations in stress. In contrast, results provided partial support for the additive...

Operationalizing cognitive vulnerability and stress from the perspective of the hopelessness theory: A multi‐wave longitudinal study of children of affectively ill parents

The current study tested the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory (HT) in a sample of youth using (1) a weakest link approach towards operationalizing cognitive vulnerability (e.g. a child's degree of vulnerability is determined by his/her most depressogenic inferential style; DIS) and (2) an idiographic approach towards operationalizing high stress (e.g. high stress is when a child is experiencing a level of stress that is higher than his/her own average level of stress). We also examined whether the association between within-subject fluctuations in hassles and depressive symptoms in cognitively vulnerable youth was moderated by absolute stress levels (the between-subject effect of stress). A multi-wave longitudinal design was used to examine whether the association between within-subject fluctuations in hassles and depressive symptoms was moderated by a depressogenic weakest link. At Time 1, 140 children (between 6 and 14 years of age) of parents with a history of major depressive episodes completed measures assessing DISs and depressive symptoms. Every 6 weeks, for the subsequent year, children completed measures assessing depressive symptoms and hassles. The results of hierarchical linear modelling analyses indicated that a depressogenic weakest link was associated with greater elevations in depressive symptoms following elevations in hassles in girls but not in boys. Results provide partial support for the applicability of the diathesis-stress component of the HT to youth. Integration of the current findings with those obtained in past research examining the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory in youth suggests the utilization of an idiographic approach to examining vulnerability-stress theories may potentially lead to an increased understanding of gender differences in depression.

Factorial Categorization of Depression-Related Constructs in Early Adolescents

The current study examined the factorial categorization of 12 depression-related constructs in a sample of seventh graders. For this purpose, different vulnerability factors, as well as depressive symptoms, were assessed, including depressogenic inferential styles about the self, consequences, and causes; dependency; self-criticism; distraction; problem solving; rumination; self-esteem; and social support. Separate exploratory factor analyses by sex revealed that symptoms of depression consistently loaded onto a separate factor from vulnerability constructs. Generally, girls and boys displayed similar factor structures, as indicated by separable factors tapping coping, self-view, and pessimism. Additionally, there were noteworthy sex differences. Girls, but not boys, displayed a pattern suggesting the development of a coping style encompassing social support.

Depressogenic inferential styles, negative events, and depressive symptoms in youth: An attempt to reconcile past inconsistent findings

Research examining the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory (HT) in youth has provided mixed support for the theory. One explanation for inconsistent findings is the failure to consider relationships among the three inferential styles posited to serve as vulnerability factors by the theory. The weakest link hypothesis posits that an individual is as vulnerable to depression as his/her most depressogenic inferential style (DIS) makes him/her. A second explanation is that researchers have operationalized “high stress” from a nomothetic, as opposed to an idiographic, perspective. The current study tested the diathesis-stress component of the HT in 230 third-grade and 152 seventh-grade schoolchildren using both a weakest link and an idiographic approach towards analysis. Children completed measures assessing depressive symptoms and DISs. Children subsequently completed measures assessing depressive symptoms and negative events once a week for 6 weeks. Hierarchical linear modeling and time-lagged analyses indicated that a depressogenic weakest link was associated with greater elevations in depressive symptoms following elevations in stress.

The Timing of Parent and Child Depression: A Hopelessness Theory Perspective

This study examined whether children's inferential styles moderate the association between the onset of depressive symptoms in children and their parents. To provide a powerful test of our hypotheses, we utilized a high-risk sample (parents with a history of major depressive episodes and their children) and a multiwave longitudinal design. During the initial assessment, 140 children (ages 6 to 14) completed measures assessing depressogenic inferential styles. Parents and children also completed measures assessing current level of depressive symptoms. Following the initial assessment, children and parents were contacted every 6 weeks for the next year to complete measures assessing depressive symptoms. The results of hierarchical linear modeling analyses indicated that children who exhibited depressogenic inferential styles reported greater elevations in depressive symptoms following elevations in their parent's level of depressive symptoms than did children who did not exhibit such styles. The strength of this association was greater in girls.

Operationalizing the “vulnerability” and “stress” components of the hopelessness theory of depression: A multi-wave longitudinal study

The current study tested of the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory (HT) using (1) a “weakest link” approach towards operationalizing vulnerability (e.g., an individual is as vulnerable to depression as his/her most depressogenic inferential style—DIS) and (2) an idiographic approach towards operationalizing high levels of stress. The procedure involved an initial assessment during which participants completed measures assessing DISs and depressive symptoms. The procedure also involved a series of eight follow-up assessments, occurring every 6 weeks, during which depressive symptoms and hassles were assessed. Hypotheses were tested in two samples of adults (i.e., adults diagnosed with a current MDE and adults diagnosed with a past MDE at Time 1). In line with hypotheses, in both samples, depressogenic weakest links were associated with greater elevations in depressive symptoms following elevations in hassles. At the same time, equally strong support was obtained for the HT when stress was operationalized from a nomothetic perspective and when vulnerability was operationalized as a DIS about causes (but not consequences or self).

A test of integration of the activation hypothesis and the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory of depression.

This prospective study tested the integration of the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory of depression (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989) and Persons and Miranda's (1992) activation hypothesis (i.e. depressogenic inferential styles are typically latent cognitive processes that must be primed in order to be accurately assessed). In order to test the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory, we used a short-term longitudinal design. In order to test the activation hypothesis, inferential styles were assessed both before and after a negative cognitive priming questionnaire. A group of 165 university students completed measures of inferential styles about the self, consequences, and causes before and after completing a negative cognitive priming questionnaire (Time 1). Participants also completed measures of depressive symptoms prior to completing the cognitive priming questionnaire and 5 weeks later (Time 2). Finally, negative events occurring between Time 1 and Time 2 were assessed. Contrary to the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory, none of the unprimed inferential styles interacted with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms. In line with the integration of the hopelessness theory and the activation hypothesis, however, each of the primed inferential styles interacted with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms even after controlling for the proportion of variance in depressive symptoms accounted for by the unprimed inferential style stress interactions. Individuals with depressogenic inferential styles are likely to show increases in depressive symptoms following the occurrence of negative events. At the same time, these depressogenic inferential styles are typically latent cognitive processes that must be primed in order to be accurately assessed.

A Test of the Integration of the Hopelessness and Self-Esteem Theories of Depression in Schoolchildren.

This prospective study tested the diathesis-stress and symptom components of the integration of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression in a sample of third- and seventh-grade children. The procedure involved an initial assessment of depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and depressogenic inferential styles about causes, consequences, and the self. The procedure also involved a follow-up assessment, 6 weeks later, in which depressive symptoms and the occurrence of negative events were assessed. In line with the integrative theory, depressogenic inferential styles interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms in boys with low but not high self-esteem. At the same time, contrary to the integrative theory, depressogenic inferential styles interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms in girls with high but not low self-esteem.

Cognitive Vulnerability to Hopelessness Depression: A Chain Is Only as Strong as Its Weakest Link

The hopelessness theory proposes that depressogenic inferential styles about the self, consequences, and causes serve as vulnerability factors to hopelessness depression. Previous research on the diathesis–stress component of the theory has examined each inferential style separately. Doing so, however, is likely to provide an inaccurate test of the theory because individuals who possess only one depressogenic inferential style but who show increases in symptoms following negative events will appear to support the theory in some analyses but to contradict the theory in others. The weakest link hypothesis posits that an individual is as vulnerable to hopelessness depression as her most depressogenic inferential style makes her. Therefore, according to this hypothesis, when testing the theory, researchers should determine each participant's degree of vulnerability using her most depressogenic inferential style. The goal of the current study was to test the diathesis–stress and symptom components of the hopelessness theory in seventh grade children using both the traditional and weakest link approaches. Seventy-nine children completed measures of depressogenic inferential styles and depressive symptoms (Time 1). Ten weeks later (Time 2), they completed measures of depressive symptoms and negative events. Neither depressogenic inferential styles about the self, consequences, nor causes interacted with negative events to predict increases in symptoms of hopelessness depression. In line with hypotheses, however, children's “weakest links” interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness depression symptoms. In addition, in line with the symptom component of the theory, this interaction did not predict increases in nonhopelessness depression symptoms.

Depressive Mood Reactions to Failure in the Achievement Domain: A Test of the Integration of the Hopelessness and Self-Esteem Theories of Depression

This prospective study tested the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the integration of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. One hundred and thirty-six high school seniors applying early decision to the University of Pennsylvania completed measures of depressed mood, hopelessness, self-esteem, and depressogenic inferential styles 1–8 weeks before receiving their admissions decision (Time 1). The assessment of self-esteem and depressogenic inferential styles was preceded by a priming task designed to activate latent cognitive vulnerability factors. In addition, participants completed measures of mood and hopelessness shortly after they received their admissions decision (Time 2) and 4 days later (Time 3). In line with the diathesis-stress component of the theory, depressogenic inferential styles about consequences, causes, and the self for achievement events interacted with low self-esteem to predict enduring depressive mood reactions (Time 3) in negative outcome students. In addition, in partial support of the causal mediation component of the theory, in negative outcome students with low self-esteem, the relationship between depressogenic inferential styles and enduring depressive mood reactions was partially mediated by hopelessness.

The hopelessness theory of depression: a test of the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components in third and seventh grade children.

The goal of the current study was to test the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the hopelessness theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children. The procedure involved an initial assessment of depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and the 3 cognitive styles posited as vulnerability factors by hopelessness theory. The procedure also involved a series of 6 weekly follow-up assessments in which depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and the occurrence of negative events were assessed. A depressogenic attributional style interacted with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms in seventh-grade children but not in third-grade children. A depressogenic inferential style about consequences interacted with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms in both third- and seventh-grade children. Last, a depressogenic inferential style about the self interacted with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms in third- and seventh-grade girls but not boys. None of these interactions were mediated by hopelessness.