Depressed Fathers Research Articles

Is anxiety and depression transmissible? Depressed mother rats transmit anxiety- and depression-like phenotypes to cohabited rat pups through gut microbiota assimilation

ObjectiveThis study is to investigate the role of gut microbiota transmission in the development of anxiety/depression in offspring exposed to maternal depression. MethodOffspring rats were cohabitated with their depressed mother or father rats (which exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)) for 2, 4, and 6 months, the anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, and interaction/caring activities between mother/father and their pups were detected. The gut microbiota composition and its relationship with behaviors were analyzed. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was performed to establish the gut microbiota of depressed/normal mother rats in the offspring rats to further confirm the role of “depressive gut microbiota” transmission in mediating the anxiety/depression in the pups. ResultsAnxiety and depression phenotypes can be transmitted from depressed mother rats to their cohabited offspring. Frequent interactions and gut microbiota assimilation were observed between rat mothers and their pups. Remodeling of the gut microbiota in pups by FMT could induce or attenuate anxiety- and depression-like phenotypes depending on the origin of the fecal microbiota. By comparison, the pups cohabiting with depressed father rats exhibited milder anxiety and depression. ConclusionsThese data together support that depressed mothers can transmit anxiety/depression to their pups through gut microbiota assimilation, which is related to frequent interactions. Our study reinforces the significance of mental health of mothers in preventing the occurrence of childhood anxiety and depression, and pointing out the possibility of remodeling intestinal microbiota as an effective therapeutic approach for treating anxiety/depression in children.

Enhancing engagement in parenting programs: A comparative study of in-person, online, and telehealth formats

IntroductionParenting programs are widely used to prevent and ameliorate children’s emotional and behavioral problems but low levels of engagement undermine intervention effectiveness and reach within and beyond research settings. Technology can provide flexible and cost-effective alternate service-delivery formats for parenting programs, and studies are needed to assess the extent to which parents are willing to engage with digitally assisted formats. MethodsAfter Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) is an evidence-based parenting program for military families. In the current comparative effectiveness trial, families were randomly assigned to either an in-person group (n = 95), self-directed online (n = 78), or individual telehealth (n = 71) formats of ADAPT. We explored whether children’s initial problem severity, parenting efficacy, parental depression, household income, child age, child gender, parental deployment length, and waiting time were related to parental engagement across different delivery formats. Zero-inflated Poisson regressions were used due to the distribution of the number of attended sessions. ResultsCompared to the in-person group format, parents in the individual telehealth and self-directed online formats had higher engagement levels. For the in-person format, parents who perceived their children as having more severe problems were more likely to enroll and families with a father deployed for longer time attended fewer sessions. In the self-directed online format, families with less depressed fathers were more likely to enroll. No predictors were found for the telehealth format. For all three formats, once parents took the first step to engage, they were likely to finish all sessions. DiscussionTechnology-assisted delivery formats have the potential to improve program engagement. Results from this study will help facilitate the development of specific strategies to promote engagement in the future.

Postpartum depression screening in mothers and fathers at well-child visits: a feasibility study within the NASCITA cohort

ObjectiveTo assess the feasibility of the family paediatrician’s (FP) role in identifying the signs of postpartum depression in parents in time to guarantee child well-being.Design, setting and participantsData for this...

Supporting depressed fathers following child birth- a partner inclusive, culturally sensitive, low literacy parenting program

Supporting depressed fathers following child birth- a partner inclusive, culturally sensitive, low literacy parenting program

Avoidant attachment transmission to offspring in families with a depressed parent

BackgroundInsecure attachment is associated with mental health morbidity. We explored associations between parent and offspring attachment style in a longitudinal study of families with a depressed parent. MethodsParents (N = 169) with a DSM-IV mood disorder and their adult offspring (N = 267), completed the Adult Attachment Questionnaire at one or more time points during up to 9.7 years of follow-up. Linear mixed effects models explored associations between parent and offspring anxious and avoidant attachment scores. Residualized models accounted for parent and offspring depression severity. ResultsAvoidant attachment scores were associated between parents and offspring with (p = .034) and without (p = .012) adjustment for baseline age and sex of parent and offspring. Depressed father-offspring relationships showed more avoidant attachment in offspring compared to depressed mother-offspring pairs (p = .010). After accounting for depression severity, parent average residualized avoidant attachment scores did not significantly correlate with those of offspring (unadjusted p = .052; adjusted p = .085), though the effect sizes did not change substantially, and 75 % of the correlation was retained. Parent-son relationships exhibited stronger avoidant attachment correlations compared to parent-daughter pairs (p = .048). LimitationsSmall sub-sample of fathers, parent and offspring assessments not always completed at the same time, and use of a self-report attachment style instrument. ConclusionsFamilial transmission of insecure avoidant attachment, a risk factor for negative mental health outcomes, merits research as a potential treatment target. In this preliminary study, its transmission to offspring seemed mostly independent of depression. Depressed fathers and their sons may deserve focus to reduce insecure avoidant attachment and improve clinical course.

The Relationship Between Paternal Postpartum Depression and Psychosocial Variables: A longitudinal Study in Iran.

This study aimed to investigate and identify the psychosocial factors that are associated with paternal postpartum depression. A longitudinal correlation study with 150 fathers was performed with three time frames (late pregnancy, postpartum, and four weeks postpartum). The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale assessed those with depression (38.7%; n=58) and those without depressive symptoms (61.3%; n=92). Psychological variables related to paternal depression were also assessed through questionnaires. Psychological variables such as marital adjustment and stress had a significant relationship with paternal depression. In addition, depressed fathers experienced less marital compatibility and more tension than non-depressed fathers. These findings emphasize the importance of considering the psychosocial variables that affect paternal psychological health. Mental health professionals may be able to reduce mental disorders, stress, psychological distress, and marital maladjustment in fathers with appropriate psychological interventions.

Paternal Perinatal Depression in Modern-Day Fatherhood.

Postpartum depression in new mothers has become a widely recognized public health concern. Paternal perinatal depression (PPND) and the mental health of fathers in the perinatal period continues to receive significantly less public attention. Overall prevalence rates of up to 25% have been documented in first-time fathers. The presence of maternal depression, unsatisfactory couple relationships, and certain psychosocial and biological risk factors are associated with poor paternal bonding and increased depression risk. Depressed fathers experience excessive self-criticism, restlessness, irritability, and aggression rather than low mood. Depression in new fathers can lead to drug and alcohol abuse, food behavior disorders, and lack of impulse control. PPND leads to developmental delay, mental health disorders, and emotional or behavioral problems in the offspring. PPND may also adversely affect a child's ability to learn new information, with lasting intellectual and scholastic consequences. There currently are no official criteria to diagnose PPND, and neither are there validated screening tools available to fathers. A family-focused approach should be considered in place of the historically gender-focused mood assessment. Nontraditional interventions such as Internet communities, e-therapy, or group workshops are shown to combat a father's contextual understanding of therapy. Group therapy with integrated cognitive behavioral therapy can address masculine norms surrounding the parenting roles of fathers and can help cultivate support networks that are otherwise absent among new dads. PPND is ideally addressed by the adoption of a father-inclusive model of care that shifts the parenting paradigm and provides emotional and parenting support to men as they experience their new role as dad.

Getting help as a depressed dad: A lived experience narrative of paternal postnatal depression, with considerations for healthcare practice.

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE SUBJECT?: A significant proportion of fathers report experiencing depression after their baby is born Fathers are not offered regular support for their psychological well-being in the transition to parenthood despite an acknowledged need for such support WHAT DOES THE PAPER ADD TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: Lived experience provides new insight into how one father experienced postnatal depression, including the role of his partner in help-seeking It explains the delayed presentation in help-seeking as resulting from healthcare practitioner language and attitudes, and gendered expectations around mental health and help-seeking in the context of fatherhood WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR MENTAL HEALTH NURSING?: Mental health nurses should be aware that postnatal depression can affect fathers as well as mothers, and that it is necessary to support fathers in safe spaces and with appropriate language Planning care for depression in men should consider the recent birth of a child in order to provide effective care Clearer guidance is needed for supporting new fathers with postnatal depression ABSTRACT: Introduction Fathers are not universally supported with their perinatal mental health, but evidence shows that they suffer at a similar level to mothers. Aim This paper examines the journey of one father through his PND experience, his help seeking, and encounters in healthcare, in order to highlight the needs of a depressed father. Method The method is a father's lived experience narrative which has been written alongside a health visitor who highlights the relevance of the condition to healthcare practice. Results & Discussion The needs of fathers are unmet. They require support which considers their gender role expectations. Partners are key to their help seeking. Implications for practice The language and sensitivity used by nurses is key to encouraging fathers to share their depression and reduce stigma around the condition.

The mother domain: Mediated model of maternal gatekeepers and depressed fathers among newlyweds with children

AbstractObjectiveTo understand how the marriage relationship is related to paternal depression and maternal gatekeeping perceptions.BackgroundPaternal depression is an understudied topic, and research connecting it to maternal gatekeeping is still in its infancy. Research has found that the marriage relationship can be associated with both depression and maternal gatekeeping. This study focuses on how these three areas are related.MethodA subsample of the the Couple Relationships and Transition Experiences project was used including 507 couples, or 1014 married parents. Two separate structural equation modeling mediational models were tested to examine father depression as a predictor of maternal gatekeeping, with marital instability as the mediator in one model and partner connectedness as the mediator in the other. Both parent reports were used for maternal gatekeeping, marital instability, and partner connectedness.ResultsNo direct association between father depression and maternal gatekeeping was found, nor did partner connectedness mediate this relationship. However, father depression was associated with maternal reports of marital instability and, in turn, mother reports of maternal gatekeeping.ConclusionThese mixed findings suggest a need for future longitudinal research to better understand the nature of the relationship between father depression and maternal gatekeeping.ImplicationsThese results suggest that therapists and researchers examine father depression through a wholistic family lens, acknowledging potential indirect effects associated with paternal depression, and the importance of assessing partner connectedness.

Fatherhood and Depression: Dealing with Depression in the Family from the Fathers' Perspective - A Qualitative Study

Investigation of the experiences of depressed fathers in dealing with their depressive disorder in the family. 17 semi-structured narrative interviews were conducted and analyzed following a Grounded Theory Approach. Fathers describe individual coping strategies in dealing with their depressive disorder that aim at independently coping from their family (self-management, [non])disclosure of the disorder). Fathers should be supported in (the decision-making process of) disclosing their illness to the family and developing coping strategies that take family needs further into account.

Parental Depression After Preterm Birth: An Opportunity for Prevention.

In this issue of Pediatrics, Garfield et al1 present new findings on depression symptoms among mothers and fathers who are parents of preterm infants during the NICU stay and the 30 days after discharge from the hospital. The data reveal that when preterm infants are hospitalized in the NICU, mothers are initially more depressed than fathers (higher scores on Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale), but maternal scores have decreased 30 days after discharge in contrast to paternal scores.1 With this study, the authors contribute to a growing literature on the importance of paternal postpartum depression better referred to as paternal perinatal affective disorder (PPAD),2 which encompasses both pre- and postnatal anxiety and depression. Whereas maternal postpartum depression (PPD) is increasingly recognized, PPAD is underscreened, underdiagnosed, and undertreated despite a prevalence of 8% to 20% in some surveys.2–4 Moreover, data suggest PPAD has adverse effects on mothers, their children, and the parental relationship.4,5 Risk factors include adverse childhood experiences,6 previous history of affective disorder, comorbid maternal PPD, unemployment, and low socioeconomic status, among others.4,5 PPAD peaks at 6 months postpartum, continues through 12 months postpartum, and may approach prevalence rates of 20% when preterm infants are less than 32 weeks' gestational age and 40% when nonresident fathers are included in surveys.7Our improved understanding of the impact of safe, stable, nurturing relationships in buffering toxic stress makes the management of PPAD critically important for pediatricians. Recent studies of paternal grief8 highlight the presence of a term called “toxic masculinity,”9 whereby fathers are less likely to report sadness and weepiness and more likely to discourage breastfeeding and to demonstrate externalizing symptoms such as anger, irritability, substance use, and domestic violence.2 Although the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale used in this study has been validated for fathers as well as for mothers, researchers are studying alternate screens that may better capture the symptoms with which fathers present. The Gotland scale is one such screen that attempts to capture the broader range of paternal symptoms of PPAD.10,11The authors of this study highlight some of the limitations of the generalizability of their findings. The population studied was predominantly a high socioeconomic status college educated population with almost no nonresident fathers. Furthermore, few of the infants were less than 32 weeks' gestational age and there are no data on illness severity among the infants. Despite these limits, this article emphasizes the need for pediatricians to engage fathers more actively in care. Here are 4 ways to accomplish this goal:(1) Identify parents, fathers as well as mothers, in the NICU who have risk factors and provide supportive interventions and close follow-up after discharge. (2) Screen fathers at the 4-month well visit for PPAD because mothers are already screened for PPD; monitoring and screening fathers for depression can be continued through the 12-month well visit. (3) Advocate to include fathers in current proposals for paid postpartum family leave. (4) Advocate for the development of a workforce with expertise in parental mental health that acknowledges the presence and need for treatment of men with PPAD. Although we have begun to close the gap for maternal PPD,12,13 a chasm of underrecognized and undertreated depressed fathers must be addressed if we are to support families with young children.

Sex Differences in Intergenerational Transfer Risk of Major Depressive Disorder.

BackgroundThe children of depressed parents are more likely to suffer from mental illness, particularly major depressive disorder (MDD). However, most data come from adolescent and young-adult populations, and published studies have reported inconsistent results regarding intergenerational transmission.Material/MethodsWe retrospectively investigated hospitalized depressed patients with positive family history (FHP) from 1 Jan 2008 to 31 Dec 2017 and analyzed the differences in sex distribution in the intergenerational transfer risk of major depressive disorder.ResultsWe enrolled 528 patients with maternal or paternal positive FHP from a total of 4856 patients, and divided them into 4 groups: female patients with maternal FHP (FM: 220, 41.7%), female patients with paternal FHP (FP: 116, 22.0%), male patients with maternal FHP (MM: 96, 18.2%), and male patients with paternal FHP (MP: 96, 18.2%). In this study, 12.2% of hospitalized depressed patients had an FHP. The ratio of male: female patients with FHP was 2: 3. The ratio of male: female patients with maternal FHP was almost 1: 2. Analyses showed that the risk of depression in daughters was higher than in sons. Compared with children of depressed fathers, the children of depressed mothers were at higher risk of depression. Daughters and sons share an equal risk of depression with paternal FHP.ConclusionsThe results suggest a clear interaction of sex between patients and their depressed parents. Daughters of depressed mothers had the highest risk of suffering from depression compared with other offspring.

New parents' experiences of postpartum depression: a systematic review of qualitative evidence.

The objective of the review was to synthesize the evidence on new mothers' and fathers' experiences of postpartum depression (PPD). Postpartum depression is a form of clinical depression that affects women and, less frequently, men, typically during the first months after childbirth. It has been estimated that 10% to 20% of women and 10% of men suffer from PPD and it may have serious consequences for mothers, fathers and their children. Therefore, this review covers the experiences of both mothers and fathers. This qualitative review considered studies that included new mothers and fathers who had any number of children and who experienced PPD within a one-year postpartum period. The phenomenon of interest was the lived experience of new mothers and fathers with PPD. Qualitative studies including, but not limited to, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, action research and feminist research were considered. The review systematically searched the following databases: MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Scopus and the Finnish database MEDIC. In addition, the search for unpublished articles included ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed independently by two reviewers, and qualitative data were extracted from papers by two independent reviewers using a standardized data extraction tool. Qualitative research findings were pooled using the JBI methodology. Thirteen papers that considered mothers' (n = 199) experiences of PPD were included in the review. A total of 98 findings were extracted and aggregated into 14 categories, and from them, four synthesized findings were developed: i) Depressed mothers feel unable to control their own lives due to low resilience; ii) The ambivalent feelings depressed mothers experience towards their babies, partners and in-laws cause distress and suffering; iii) Depressed mothers experience anger and despair if they perceive imbalances between their support needs and the support they get from healthcare providers and significant others; and iv) Depressed mothers experience hopelessness and helplessness resulting from their new-found motherhood and financial worries. Two papers that considered fathers' (n = 20) experiences of PPD were included in the review. A total of 19 findings were extracted and aggregated into six categories, and from them, two synthesized findings were developed: i) Depressed fathers experience disappointment arising from perceived imbalances between their support needs and the support they get from their partner and significant others; and ii) Depressed fathers are more imbalanced after childbirth than fathers who are not suffering from PPD, so they feel unable to control their own lives due to low resilience. The qualitative studies concerning new parents' experiences of PPD have focused on the mother's perspective, and studies of the father's perspective, especially of the father's own experiences of PPD, are scarce. Both mothers and fathers do not receive enough support from their significant others. In addition, mothers want more support from health professionals. Because PPD has a great influence on the well-being of mothers and fathers, as well as children, it is important to understand what parents undergo after childbirth.

Effects of male postpartum depression on father-infant interaction: The mediating role of face processing.

It is estimated that postpartum depression affects up to 25% of men. Despite such high prevalence, the majority of studies on postpartum depression are focused on mothers, and the role of paternal depression and its effects on infant development have been overlooked by researchers and clinicians. The present study aimed to fill this gap by investigating the effect of paternal postpartum depression on father-infant interactions. In addition, we examined whether differences in face recognition mediated the effects of paternal postpartum depression on father-infant interactions. A total of 61 father-infant dyads (17 postpartum depression, 44 controls) took part in the study. Results revealed that compared to controls, fathers with postpartum depression had a worse pattern of interaction with their infants on measures of responsiveness, mood, and sensitivity; they also had greater difficulty in recognizing happy adult faces, but greater facility in recognizing sad adult faces. Depressed fathers attributed greater intensities to sad adult and infant faces. The tendency to attribute greater intensity to sad adult faces was confirmed as a partial mediator of the effect of paternal postpartum depression on measures of father responsiveness and as a full mediator of the effects of paternal depression on father sensitivity. Clinical implications and suggestions for further studies are discussed.

Screening fathers for postpartum depression can be cost-effective: An example from Sweden

Background: Postpartum depression negatively affects the whole family and its prevalence in Sweden ranges between 6–10% for fathers and 13–16% for mothers. However, only mothers in Sweden are currently routinely screened. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine if a postpartum depression screening for fathers in Stockholm County could be cost-effective. Methods: National Swedish databases were used to find registry data and a literature review was undertaken to identify the model data inputs associated with postpartum depression in Sweden. The generated evidence was used to build a Markov model in TreeAge. One-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed to account for parameter uncertainties. Alternative scenario analyses were further undertaken to test the assumptions in the base case analysis. Results: A postpartum screening for depression in fathers is cost-effective in base case and alternative scenarios. The results indicate that the screening program is associated with lower costs and higher health effects. The results were sensitive to variables of quality adjusted life years for the depressed fathers, probabilities of remission in treatment and no treatment groups and start age and productivity losses. The probabilistic sensitivity analysis resulted in a 70% probability of the postnatal depression screening intervention being cost-effective. Limitations: The current study only uses secondary data; therefore future research should assess the cost-effectiveness of screening fathers for depression. Conclusion: The postpartum screening intervention for fathers could be cost-effective compared to no screening. Future research should replicate the potential cost-effectiveness for screening fathers for postpartum depression.

Paternal Perinatal Depression Assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and the Gotland Male Depression Scale: Prevalence and Possible Risk Factors.

Several studies have used the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), developed to screen new mothers, also for new fathers. This study aimed to further contribute to this knowledge by comparing assessment of possible depression in fathers and associated demographic factors by the EPDS and the Gotland Male Depression Scale (GMDS), developed for “male” depression screening. The study compared EPDS score ≥10 and ≥12, corresponding to minor and major depression, respectively, in relation to GMDS score ≥13. At 3–6 months after child birth, a questionnaire was sent to 8,011 fathers of whom 3,656 (46%) responded. The detection of possibly depressed fathers by EPDS was 8.1% at score ≥12, comparable to the 8.6% detected by the GMDS. At score ≥10, the proportion detected by EPDS increased to 13.3%. Associations with possible risk factors were analyzed for fathers detected by one or both scales. A low income was associated with depression in all groups. Fathers detected by EPDS alone were at higher risk if they had three or more children, or lower education. Fathers detected by EPDS alone at score ≥10, or by both scales at EPDS score ≥12, more often were born in a foreign country. Seemingly, the EPDS and the GMDS are associated with different demographic risk factors. The EPDS score appears critical since 5% of possibly depressed fathers are excluded at EPDS cutoff 12. These results suggest that neither scale alone is sufficient for depression screening in new fathers, and that the decision of EPDS cutoff is crucial.

Depression and playfulness in fathers and young infants: A matched design comparison study

BackgroundDepression in fathers in the postnatal period is associated with an increased risk of some adverse child developmental outcomes. One possible mechanism for the familial transmission of risk is through the negative effects of depression on parenting and the parent-child relationship. So far, evidence indicates that depressed fathers tend to be more withdrawn in their early interactions. However, the interaction dimensions studied to date may not be able to detect and accurately classify unique features of father-infant play – including physically stimulating and highly rousing episodes of play. Hence, in this matched design comparison study, we set out to examine, for the first time, links between diagnosed paternal depression in the postnatal period and playfulness in father-infant interactions. MethodsFathers and their infants were assessed when the infants were 3 months old. Paternal depression was diagnosed using a structured psychiatric interview. Currently depressed (n = 19) and non-depressed (n = 19) fathers were individually matched on age and education. Fathers were filmed playing with their children. Four dimensions were coded for paternal playfulness during free-play: physicality, playful excitation, tactile stimulation and active engagement. ResultsDepressed fathers, compared to non-depressed fathers, engaged in fewer episodes of playful excitation (mean scores: 0.71 vs.2.53, p = 0.005), less gentle touch (mean time: 38.57 vs. 53.37, p = 0.015) and less active engagement (mean scores: 2.29 vs 3.24, p = 0.044). When controlling for infant fretfulness, the findings remained largely unchanged. LimitationsThe sample size was small and the sample was limited to mostly white, well-educated fathers. ConclusionsPlayful paternal behaviours as early as 3 months differ between fathers with and without depression. These changes may help in understanding children’s risk in relation to paternal psychopathology and could be a target for future family interventions.

The Three Rules of Everyday Magic by Amanda Rawson Hill

Reviewed by: The Three Rules of Everyday Magic by Amanda Rawson Hill Karen Coats Hill, Amanda Rawson The Three Rules of Everyday Magic. Boyds Mills, 2018 [192p] Trade ed. ISBN 978-1-62979-940-7 $17.95 E-book ed. ISBN 978-1-68437-149-5 $7.99 Reviewed from galleys R Gr. 5-8 Kate has grown up surrounded by music, but since her father left, she can't bring herself to sing or play her guitar. Every night, she writes him a note, but since her mother says she doesn't know where he is, all she can do is stuff her heartfelt missives in a box under her bed. Her father's leaving isn't the only big change for this fifth-grader, though. Her grandmother's dementia means Grammy has to move in with Kate and her mother, and Kate's had a falling out with her best friend. Using the three rules of everyday magic—believe, give, and trust—that Grammy has shown her in her lucid moments, Kate tries to fix the broken people and relationships in her life. Credibly flawed and feisty, Kate cycles through embarrassment, hope, determination, anger, and even some mild depression as she comes to terms with what is and isn't within her control; indeed, an especially poignant moment flares when she realizes that her coping mechanisms aren't all that different than those of her clinically depressed father. Unlike her father, however, Kate is able and willing to avail herself of the support of those around her, including a new friend, Jane, who proves doggedly faithful even when Kate treats her badly; an old friend, Parker; the sensei at her karate school; and her mother, who reminds her that music can not only express sadness but also relieve it. Without being overoptimistic, this shows the magic of belief and trust when combined with action. KC [End Page 125] Copyright © 2018 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Prevalence and factors associated with depression and depression-related healthcare access in mothers of 9-month-old infants in the Republic of Ireland.

Untreated maternal depression during the postpartum period can have a profound impact on the short- and long-term psychological and physical well-being of children. There is, therefore, an imperative for increased understanding of the determinants of depression and depression-related healthcare access during this period. Respondents were 11 089 mothers of 9-month-old infants recruited to the Growing Up in Ireland study. Of this sample, 10 827 had complete data on all relevant variables. Respondents provided sociodemographic, socioeconomic and household information, and completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD). 11.1% of mothers scored above the CESD threshold for depression. 10.0% of depressed mothers and 25.4% of depressed fathers had depressed partners. Among depressed mothers, 73.1% had not attended a healthcare professional for a mental health problem since the birth of the cohort infant. In the adjusted model, the likelihood of depression was highest in mothers who: had lower educational levels (odds ratio (OR) 1.26; 95% confidence intervals (CIs) 1.08, 1.46); were unemployed (OR 1.27; 95% CIs 1.10, 1.47); reported previous mental health problems (OR 6.55; 95% CIs 5.68, 7.56); reported that the cohort child was the result of an unintended pregnancy (OR 1.43; 95% CIs 1.22, 1.68), was preterm (OR 1.35; 95% CIs 1.07, 1.70), or had health/developmental problems (OR 1.20; 95% CIs 1.04, 1.39); had no partner in the household (OR 1.33; 95% CIs 1.04, 1.70) or were living with a depressed partner (OR 2.66; 95% CIs 1.97, 3.60); reported no family living nearby (OR 1.33; 95% CIs 1.16, 1.54); were in the lowest income group (OR 1.60; 95% CIs 1.21, 2.12). The primary determinant of not seeking treatment for depression was being of non-white ethnicity (OR 2.21; 95% CIs 1.18, 4.13). Results highlight the prevalence of maternal depression in the later postpartum period, particularly for lower socioeconomic groups, those with previous mental health problems, and those with limited social support. The large proportion of unmet need in depressed mothers, particularly among ethnic minority groups, emphasises the need for a greater awareness of postpartum mental health problems and increased efforts by healthcare professionals to ensure that mothers can access the required services.

Unsupportive parenting and internalising behaviour problems in children with or without intellectual disability.

Children with intellectual disability (ID) are at heightened risk for developing other psychological disorders, including internalising disorders. Anxiety and depression have been shown to be familial, and parenting is a contributing factor to the development of these disorders. To extend this research, we examined the extent to which mother and father depression and negative, unsupportive parenting related to child internalising behaviour problems, in children with ID or with typical development (TD). Participants were 156 mother and father dyads and their children, assessed at ages 4 and 5 years. We examined parent (mother and father) and child delay status (ID and TD) in relation to measures of both observed and self-reported unsupportive, negative parenting. Utilising moderation models, we examined the relationship between parental depression, unsupportive/negative parenting and child internalising behaviour problems. Unsupportive, negative parenting differed based on parent gender and child delay status. In addition, father depression was a significant moderator of the relationship between unsupportive parenting and child internalising behaviour problems. Children with ID were found to be at higher risk of experiencing unsupportive, negative parenting than children with TD. Children of depressed fathers were especially vulnerable to developing internalising behaviour problems in an unsupportive parenting context.