Depletion Of Supersaturation Research Articles

Coarsening kinetics of Cu particles in an Fe-1.5% Cu alloy

Abstract The Ostwald ripening of spherical and rod-shaped Cu precipitate particles in an Fe-1.5 mass% Cu alloy aged between 873 and 1023 K has been examined by measuring both the particle size by electron microscopy and the Cu concentration in the α-Fe matrix by electrical resistivity. The average radius of spherical and rod-shaped particles increases with ageing time t as t 1/3, in agreement with the growth by diffusion-controlled coarsening. The kinetics of the depletion of supersaturation with t obey the predicted t – 1/3 time law. The Cu/α-Fe interfacial energy and the diffusivity of Cu in α-Fe have been independently derived from the data on coarsening. The interfacial energies are measured as 0.57 and 1.1 Jm–2 for the spherical and rod-shaped particles respectively. The pre-exponential factor and the activation energy for bulk diffusion are found to be 4.54α10 –5 m2s– 1 and 241 kJmol – 1.

Кинетика роста зародыша из нанофазы

We present a theoretical analysis of the growth kinetics of a nucleus from a nano-sized mother phase with a restricted amount of material in the presence of the stopping effect due to the depletion of supersaturation. Such a regime is typical for GaAs nanowires grown by the vapor-liquid-solid mechanism from a Ga droplet and is observed by in situ growth monitoring inside a transmission electron microscope. An analytical solution is obtained for the time-dependent size of the nucleus and atomic concentration in a nano-phase. A principally new time-scale hierarchy is found, whereby the entire growth process id divided into 3 stages – (1) fast nucleus growth to the stopping size, (2) slow nucleus growth at the rate of refill of a mother phase, and (3) further refill of a mother phase to resume the initial supersaturation. A general criterion is formulated for observing the stopping effect depending on the size of a nano-phase.

Simulations of crystal aggregation and growth: Towards correct crystal area

Simulating crystal growth and aggregation can provide insight into factors that control the final product properties. Classical models involve formation of a volume‐equivalent single crystal upon aggregation. This approach does not preserve particle area, resulting in an inadequate model of supersaturation depletion. Alternatively, crystal area can be computed accurately by a Monte Carlo method where each primary particle of an aggregate is described in its full geometric complexity. However, the drawback of this method is its computational cost. Thus, a third method is introduced as a compromise, describing particles by their volume and area and preserving both upon aggregation. The so‐obtained two‐dimensional model requires growth rate expressions in volume and area. We provide a method for parametrizing these expressions so that total volume and area closely match the values obtained with the method based on full geometric information. The parameters depend on primary particle geometry and the amount of growth. © 2019 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 65: e16525, 2019

Continuous-flow, well-mixed, microfluidic crystallization device for screening of polymorphs, morphology, and crystallization kinetics at controlled supersaturation.

Screening of crystal polymorphs and morphology and measurement of crystallization kinetics in a controlled supersaturated environment is crucial for the development of crystallization processes for pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, semiconductors, catalysts, and other specialty chemicals. Most of the current tools including microtiter plates and droplet-based microfluidic devices suffer from depleting supersaturation in small compartments due to nucleation and growth of crystals. Such variation in supersaturation not only affects the outcome but also leads to impediments during the scale-up of the crystallizer. Here we develop an innovative technique using H-shaped and cyclone mixer designs to study crystallization at constant supersaturation maintained by a continuous flow of solution. While the H-shaped design can be used to screen crystals with slower kinetics, the cyclone mixer is better suited for crystals with faster kinetics. The polymorphs and morphology of o-aminobenzoic acid (o-ABA) at different supersaturations are analyzed using the cyclone mixer design and compared with the microtiter plate. While the polymorphs and morphology of o-ABA are affected by depleting supersaturation in a microtiter plate, the cyclone mixer design consistently screened stable and metastable polymorphs. These novel devices will also play an important role in supporting the FDA's initiative to spur innovation in continuous manufacturing for the advancements in drug development.

Influence of Cryorolling on the Precipitation of Cu–Ni–Si Alloys: An In Situ X-ray Diffraction Study

The effect of cryorolling on the precipitation process of deformed Cu–Ni–Si alloys was investigated through in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction technique. The results demonstrate that the precipitation process is significantly accelerated by cryorolling. Cryorolling produces higher dislocation density, which provides more heterogeneous nucleation sites for Ni2Si precipitates, hence promotes precipitation. In the early stage of aging, the enhanced nucleation of precipitates accelerates the depletion of supersaturation, and finer precipitates are obtained. In addition, recrystallization is promoted as a result of high stored energy in the cryorolled Cu–Ni–Si alloys, which facilitates the formation of discontinuous precipitation in the late stage of aging.

Improved barium removal and supersaturation depletion in wastewater by precipitation with excess sulfate

Barium ions found in wastewaters cause incrustation on membrane separation equipment used in desalination systems. In this study barium removal by precipitation is addressed, considering excess sulfate addition as a means of reducing barium concentration in solution and depleting BaSO4 supersaturation. Precipitation is conducted with synthetic wastewater in semicontinuous mode. For low excess sulfate, an induction time of a few hours is observed. As the excess sulfate is increased and/or as barium sulfate seeds are added, precipitation proceeds within a few minutes. Besides, the excess sulfate improves barium ion removal due to the common-ion effect. Residual supersaturation ratios were found to lie within the range of 1.1–3. These values were associated with a fourth order dependency of the molecular growth rate with the supersaturation ratio. Calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate dihydrate were found to be ineffective heterogeneous seeds to barium sulfate precipitation. Calcium ions were found to inhibit BaSO4 precipitation, blocking the process at a high residual supersaturation ratio of 4–5. For a sufficiently large initial supersaturation, the solution approaches equilibrium after 180 min.

Crossover of 2D graphene and 3D carbon island growth on Cu–In alloy surface

Nucleation and initial stage of graphene growth in chemical vapor deposition on the Cu–In alloy surface were studied by in situ scanning electron microscopy together with ex situ Auger electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Because of the lower melting point of Cu–In alloy, around 800°C depending on the In content, growth on solid and liquid Cu–In surfaces could be compared. On both the solid and liquid surfaces, 2D graphene and 3D carbon island growth coexisted in the initial stage. On a wide terrace, 3D carbon island nucleation dominated over 2D graphene nucleation and 3D carbon islands showed dendritic growth. When the bare area on the Cu–In surface became narrow with an increase in the island coverage, 2D graphene nucleation and growth dominated. The growth mode change from 3D to 2D was attributed to the reduction of carbon adatom flux to the existing islands due to depletion of supersaturation and reduction of the size of bare metal surface.

On heterogeneous nucleation during the precipitation of barium sulfate

Mechanisms of primary nucleation of crystals are commonly differentiated into homogeneous nucleation due to molecular collisions, and heterogeneous nucleation originating from the surface of existing heterogeneous seed particles. In theory, all heterogeneous seeds should be activated and the kinetics of homogeneous nucleation should become dominant at high supersaturation. Hence, we suppose that heterogeneous nucleation becomes negligible at very high supersaturation, e.g., at technical precipitation of barium sulfate. Nevertheless, it is often assumed in literature that heterogeneous nucleation dominates the nucleation rate even at very high supersaturation. We assume that the particle size of precipitated barium sulfate is not influenced by the presence of foreign particles above a certain high supersaturation. To prove this assumption, precipitation experiments were carried out at very high nominal activity-based supersaturation in the presence of varying amounts of barium sulfate seeds and reaction-inert silica seeds. The influence of this seed material on the particle size obtained and on the depletion of supersaturation is investigated. Our experiments prove that the heterogeneous seeds used have no influence on the particle size or the depletion of supersaturation, and that heterogeneous nucleation is to be neglected in the case of barium sulfate precipitation at very high supersaturation.

Kinetics of calcium oxalate crystal formation in urine.

It is routinely observed that persons with increased urinary stone risk factors do not necessarily form uroliths. Furthermore, stone formers can present with urinalyses that do not reflect the clinical picture. We explain this discrepancy by differences in crystallization kinetics. In 1162 urines, crystallization of Ca-oxalate was induced according to the BONN-Risk-Index (BRI) method. The urine's relative light transmissivity (RLT) was recorded from 100% at start of titration to 95% due to nuclei formation and crystal growth. From the RLT changes, a measure of the thermodynamic inhibition threshold of crystal formation (BRI) and of crystal growth kinetics is derived ("turbidity slope" after crystallization onset). On average, subjects presenting with a low inhibition threshold, i.e., high BRI, also present significantly higher crystal growth rates compared with subjects in lower BRI classes. Only subjects in the highest BRI class show a lower growth rate than expected, probably due to a depletion of supersaturation by massive initial nucleation. With increasing thermodynamic risk of crystal formation (i.e., increasing BRI) due to an imbalance between inhibitors and promoters of crystal formation, an increase in the imbalance between inhibitors and promoters of crystal growth (i.e., increasing growth rate) is observed. Both lead to an increased urolith formation risk. Healthy subjects with increased BRI are an exception to this trend: their urine is thermodynamically prone to form stones, but they show a kinetic inhibition preventing nuclei from significant growth.

Measurement of two‐dimensional distribution of surface supersaturation over a sodium chlorate crystal surface using multidirectional interferometry

The two‐dimensional (2D) distributions of surface supersaturation of sodium chlorate crystals with and without solutal convection have been measured by means of a multidirectional interferometry (MDI) technique coupled with the principles of three‐dimensional (3D) computer tomography. When solutal convection was present over a top face, the supersaturation at the center of the face was depleted by a factor of >0.9 with reference to the value at the edges of the crystal. When the convection was suppressed using an upside‐down geometry, the depletion of supersaturation at the center of the face was much smaller, <0.4. Therefore, the supersaturation difference between the edges and the face center, which is responsible for the morphological stability due to volume diffusion for the solute, becomes less important compared to the effect of convection due to hydrodynamic reasons. This result should give us a key to solve why the crystal quality is sometimes better in convection‐free microgravity conditions because of improved stability of a crystal face caused by more homogeneous distribution of supersaturation over the crystal surface.

CCN Data Interpretation Under Dynamic Operation Conditions

We have developed a new numerical model for the non-steady-state operation of the Droplet Measurement Technologies (DMT) Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) counter. The model simulates the Scanning Flow CCN Analysis (SFCA) instrument mode, where a wide supersaturation range is continuously scanned by cycling the flow rate over 20–120 s. Model accuracy is verified using a broad set of data which include ammonium sulfate calibration data (under conditions of low CCN concentration) and airborne measurements where either the instrument pressure was not controlled or where exceptionally high CCN loadings were observed. It is shown here for the first time that small pressure and flow fluctuations can have a disproportionately large effect on the instrument supersaturation due to localized compressive/expansive heating and cooling. The model shows that, for fast scan times, these effects can explain the observed shape of the SFCA supersaturation-flow calibration curve and transients in the outlet droplet sizes. The extent of supersaturation depletion from the presence of CCN during SFCA operation is also examined; we found that depletion effects can be neglected below 4000 cm−3 for CCN number. Copyright 2014 American Association for Aerosol Research

Analysis of CCN activity of Arctic aerosol and Canadian biomass burning during summer 2008

Abstract. The NASA DC-8 aircraft characterized the aerosol properties, chemical composition, and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations of the summertime Arctic during the 2008 NASA Arctic Research of the Composition of the Troposphere from Aircraft and Satellites (ARCTAS) campaign. Air masses characteristic of fresh and aged biomass burning, boreal forest, Arctic background, and anthropogenic industrial pollution were sampled. Observations were spatially extensive (50–85° N and 40–130° W) and exhibit significant variability in aerosol and CCN concentrations. The chemical composition was dominated by highly oxidized organics (66–94% by volume), with a water-soluble mass fraction of more than 50%. The aerosol hygroscopicity parameter, κ, ranged between κ = 0.08–0.32 for all air mass types. Industrial pollution had the lowest κ of 0.08 ± 0.01, while the Arctic background had the highest and most variable κ of 0.32 ± 0.21, resulting from a lower and more variable organic fraction. Both fresh and aged (long-range transported) biomass burning air masses exhibited remarkably similar κ (0.18 ± 0.13), consistent with observed rapid chemical and physical aging of smoke emissions in the atmosphere, even in the vicinity of fresh fires. The organic hygroscopicity (κorg) was parameterized by the volume fraction of water-soluble organic matter (εWSOM), with a κ = 0.12, such that κorg = 0.12εWSOM. Assuming bulk (size-independent) composition and including the κorg parameterization enabled CCN predictions to within 30% accuracy for nearly all environments sampled. The only exception was for industrial pollution from Canadian oil sands exploration, where an external mixture and size-dependent composition was required. Aerosol mixing state assumptions (internal vs. external) in all other environments did not significantly affect CCN predictions; however, the external mixing assumption provided the best results, even though the available observations could not determine the true degree of external mixing and therefore may not always be representative of the environments sampled. No correlation was observed between κorg and O : C. A novel correction of the CCN instrument supersaturation for water vapor depletion, resulting from high concentrations of CCN, was also employed. This correction was especially important for fresh biomass burning plumes where concentrations exceeded 1.5×104 cm−3 and introduced supersaturation depletions of ≥25%. Not accounting for supersaturation depletion in these high concentration environments would therefore bias CCN closure up to 25% and inferred κ by up to 50%.

First Surface Measurement of Cloud Condensation Nuclei over Kanpur, IGP: Role of Long Range Transport

Measurements have been carried out for cloud condensation nuclei (N CCN, number concentration at 0.38% average depleted supersaturation, SS) and submicron aerosol (N CN), using a CCN (cloud condensation nuclei) counter (Droplet Measurement Technology) and Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (TSI), respectively, for a large number of days in each season of the year 2008 and 2009 at Kanpur, North India. Aerosol chemical composition was also measured for 3 days and 3 nights during November–December 2009. NCCN was generally much higher than observed at similar environments elsewhere except in Chinese cities. Due to higher loading of CCN the supersaturation depletion correction is applied. Significant intraseasonal variability was observed in NCCN and CCN/CN ratio (N CCN /N CN), due to different air masses coming from north–west, east, and central parts of India. The CCN concentrations at 0.38% and CCN/CN ratio for the year 2008 varied between 10,043–12,107 cm−3 and 0.12–0.30 in winter season and 5942–7184 cm−3 and 0.07–0.15 in premonsoon season, respectively. For 2009, it varied between 10,518–13,029 cm−3 and 0.28–0.53 in winter season and 3596–8040 cm−3 and 0.20–0.28 in postmonsoon season, respectively. Higher CCN/CN ratio was observed during winter season when the air mass came from north–west, central, and eastern landmass of India. This was most likely due to relatively high accumulation mode particle concentration and large number of forest fires observed in those regions. As expected, polluted continental air masses lead to a significant increase in CCN concentrations over the winter months, most likely due to increased anthropogenic activities, i.e., increased fuel usage, large biomass burning coupled with lower mixed boundary layers. A closure study was performed by application of Köhler theory, utilizing chemical composition, and size distribution measured by SMPS. CCN concentrations were predicted for 3 days and 3 nights and these values were compared with measured CCN values at 0.13, 0.33, and 0.64% SS. In the present closure study, CCN values were slightly overpredicted to the extent of 21% ± 18%. Copyright 2012 American Association for Aerosol Research

Effect Analysis from Dynamic Regulation of Vacuum Pressure in an Adiabatic Batch Crystallizer Using Data and Image Acquisition

The effect of dynamic regulation of vacuum pressure was analyzed in an adiabatic batch crystallizer using data and image acquisition, virtual instruments, and supervisor control to obtain a controlled vacuum pressure, confirming that the process follows programmed routes in the central computer to obtain both programmed vacuum pressure and cooling dynamic profiles inside the crystallizer (direct design approach). The dynamical regulation profile of vacuum pressure called “adiabatic natural cooling” was able to originate an abrupt cooling effect by adiabatic evaporation inside of the crystallizer (e.g., natural cooling in batch crystallizers operated to atmospheric pressure), benefiting the seeded crystal growth from cane sugar until it reached a size of 732.7 μm (% volume). In turn, the increase in crystal growth, formed mass, and the available supersaturation depletion in the system, contribute to final molasses reduction. From a process dynamics viewpoint, the use of dynamic regulation profiles of vacuu...

Coarsening kinetics of Cu particles in an Fe-1.5 % Cu alloy

The Ostwald ripening of spherical and rod-shaped Cu precipitate particles in an Fe-1.5 mass% Cu alloy aged between 873 and 1023 K has been examined by measuring both the particle size by electron microscopy and the Cu concentration in the α-Fe matrix by electrical resistivity. The average radius of spherical and rod-shaped particles increases with ageing time t as t 1 / 3 , in agreement with the growth by diffusion-controlled coarsening. The kinetics of the depletion of supersaturation with t obey the predicted t - 1 / 3 time law. The Cu/a-Fe interfacial energy and the diffusivity of Cu in α-Fe have been independently derived from the data on coarsening. The interfacial energies are measured as 0.57 and 1.1 Jm - 2 for the spherical and rod-shaped particles respectively. The pre-exponential factor and the activation energy for bulk diffusion are found to be 4.54 × 10 - 5 m 2 s - 1 and 241 kJmol - 1 .

Coarsening of Ni 3Ge in binary Ni–Ge alloys: microstructures and volume fraction dependence of kinetics

Coarsening of Ni 3Ge precipitates in binary Ni–Ge alloys containing 12.15, 13.01 and 14.03 at.% Ge, aged at 724 °C (equilibrium volume fractions, f e, equaling 0.022, 0.105 and 0.202, respectively) was investigated using transmission electron microscopy and magnetic analysis. The rate constants for the kinetics of particle growth and depletion of supersaturation depend anomalously on f e, i.e. they both decrease slightly as f e increases. Average values of the chemical diffusion coefficient and the Ni 3Ge/matrix interfacial free energy, derived from analysis of the data, are in reasonable agreement with previously reported values. Alignment of the Ni 3Ge precipitates parallel to cube directions is strong, but coalescence into plate shapes is never observed. Precipitates of the solid solution γ phase nucleated in large, coherent, concave-cuboidal Ni 3Ge precipitates. This behavior is expected, considering the phase boundary between the two-phase and Ni 3Ge regions in a recently published phase diagram.

Ostwald ripening of spherical Fe particles in Cu-Fe alloys

The coarsening of spherical n -Fe and f -Fe precipitate particles in Cu-Fe alloys aged at 600, 650 and 700C has been studied by measuring both the particle size by transmission electron microscopy and the Fe concentration in the Cu matrix by electric resistivity. The average size of n -Fe and f -Fe particles increases with ageing time t as t 1/3, as predicted by the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner theory. The kinetics of the depletion of supersaturation with t for n -Fe and f -Fe particles are consistent with the predicted t -1/3 time law. The solubilities of Fe in equilibrium with a n -Fe particle of infinite size are greater than those in equilibrium with an f -Fe particle of infinite size. The Fe-Cu interface energy and the diffusivity of Fe in Cu have been independently derived from the data on coarsening. The coherent n -Fe-Cu interface energy is estimated to be 0.25Jm -2, and the incoherent f -Fe-Cu interface energy 0.52Jm -2 . The preexponential factor and activation energy for diffusion are found to be 9.75 10 -5 m 2 s -1 and 213kJmol -1 respectively.

Coarsening of Ni3Si precipitates at volume fractions from 0.03 to 0.30

The coarsening behavior of coherent Ni3Si precipitates in six binary Ni–Si alloys with Si concentrations of 10.98, 11.42, 11.74, 12.69, 13.38 and 14.35at.% Si was investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and magnetic analysis. The equilibrium volume fraction, fe, of Ni3Si in these alloys ranges from ∼0.03 to ∼0.30. The four most concentrated alloys were aged at 650°C for times up to 2760h and investigated using magnetic analysis to supplement an earlier TEM investigation. Unimodal dispersions of Ni3Si precipitates could not be obtained in the 10.98 and 11.42% Si alloys by isothermal aging at 650°C. Therefore, these alloys were first aged at 530°C for 163h and then re-aged at 650°C for times ranging from 120 to 1175h. This seeding and re-aging treatment was successful in producing unimodal dispersions. The alloy containing 11.74at.% Si, investigated previously, was also subjected to the seeding and re-aging treatment to serve as a check on the procedure. The coarsening kinetics were consistent with data from previous investigations for fe>0.10 in that there is virtually no effect of fe. For fe<0.10 there is some evidence that the relationship between coarsening behavior and fe is anomalous because the rate constants for the kinetics of average particle growth and supersaturation depletion, as well as the standard deviations of the particle size distributions, all decrease slightly as fe increases. The values of the diffusion coefficient derived from analysis of the data are in good agreement with those from previous work, but the average value of the Ni3Si/matrix interfacial free energy (derived assuming ideal solution thermodynamics for the matrix phase) is about 10% smaller, ∼8.9mJ/m2. It is suggested that elastic interactions, even in Ni3Si precipitates with their small lattice mismatch (−0.0023), are important in retarding coarsening kinetics in this system. This conjecture is supported by the strong spatial correlations observed in all the alloys, even the one in which fe≈0.03.

Microstructure and coarsening kinetics of Ni 3Ge precipitates in aged Ni [sbnd]Ge alloys

The decomposition of supersaturated Ni Ge alloys containing 14.54, 14.97 or 15.44wt.%Ge was investigated at 700 °C. Transmission electron microscopy was used to measure the average particle sizes and particle size distributions, and magnetic analysis was used to measure the reduction of supersaturation with aging time. Coherent precipitates of Ni 3Ge with the ordered L1 2 crystal structure were present from the earliest aging times (10 min) in all three alloys. The average particle size increases with aging time, t, as t 1/3 within the limits of experimental error, consistent with growth by diffusion-controlled coarsening. The particle size distributions are slightly broader than the theoretical distribution of the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner theory. The kinetics of the depletion of supersaturation with aging time area at least consistent with the predicted t −1/3 time law, although the scatter in the data was quite large. There does not appear to be any effect of volume fraction on the coarsening behavior over the range of f′ γ investigated (0.18–0.27). The values of the interfacial free energy, σ, and diffusion coefficient of Ge in Ni, D, derived from the data were85.2 ± 37.5mJ m −2 and2.00 ± 0.48 × 10 −13cm 2s −1, respectively. The large standard deviations are due to uncertainties in the measurements of the kinetics of solute depletion of the matrix. The equilibrium solubility of Ge in the matrix at 700 °C is12.81 ± 0.07wt.% (10.62 ± 0.06 at.%, which is slightly smaller than previously reported values. The Ni 3Ge precipitates are spherical at small sizes and become increasingly cuboidal as they grow. Spatial correlations that lead to rafting in Ni-base alloys containing misfitting γ′ precipitates are evident in Ni Ge alloys as well. However, the spatial correlations do not appear to be as strong, and the cuboidal morphology not as pronounced, as might be expected solely on the basis of the relatively large lattice misfit (δ ≈ 0.0064) in this alloy. Possible reasons for this behavior are discussed.

Coarsening kinetics and microstructure of Ni 3Ga precipitates in aged NiGa alloys

The decomposition of two supersaturated Ni-Ga alloys containing 18.11 and 18.97 wt.% Ga was investigated at 700 °C. Transmission electron microscopy was used to measure the average particle sizes and particle size distributions, and magnetic analysis was used to measure the reduction of supersaturation with aging time. Coherent precipitates of Ni 3Ga with the ordered L1 2 crystal structure were present from the earliest aging times (10 min) in both alloys. The average particle size increases with aging time, t, as t 1 3 within the limits of experimental error, consistent with growth by diffusion-controlled coarsening. The particle size distributions are slightly broader than the theoretical distribution of the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner theory, and appear to be independent of aging time and Ga concentration. The kinetics of the depletion of supersaturation with aging time are consistent with the predicted t −1 3 time law, although the scatter in the data was quite large. There appears to be a small effect of volume fraction on the kinetics of particle growth for the two values of f γ′ investigated (0.133 and 0.374), but the effect is absent in the kinetics of solute depletion. The values of the interfacial free energy, σ, and diffusion coefficient of Ga in Ni, D, derived from the data were 15.2±1.6 mJ m −2 and 1.04±0.20×10 −13 cm 2 s −1, respectively. The equilibrium solubility of Ga in the matrix at 700 °C is 17.58±0.08 wt.% (15.23±0.07 at.%), in excellent agreement with previously reported values. A cuboidal shape for the Ni 3Ga precipitates is evident at an average radius of about 5.9 nm, and the spatial correlations leading to alignment along 〈100〉 are quite strong in Ni-Ga alloys as well. These findings are qualitatively consistent with expectation for an alloy for which the estimated room-temperature lattice misfit is 0.0061.