Department Of Higher Education And Training Research Articles

Exploring barriers to measuring ROI for training and development interventions

The objective of this article is to investigate obstacles that hinder the assessment of return on investment (ROI) for academic staff development initiatives in public universities in South Africa. The primary objective of this study is to address the following research inquiry: What are the obstacles hindering the assessment of return on investment (ROI) for training and development interventions offered to academics within the higher education landscape of South Africa? The study employed a qualitative research methodology, which was based on an interpretive philosophical standpoint. The researchers employed purposive sampling to carefully select a total of fourteen participants who were selected to represent a range of cases or institutions. These included six universities and government institutions, namely the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI), and the Education, Training, and Development Practices Sector Education and Training Authority (ETDPSETA). The interview data was subjected to thematic analysis using ATLAS.ti. The factors that hinder the measurement of ROI include the intricacy of the process, insufficient capacity, time lag between training and improved performance, lack of motivation, financial limitations, absence of processes, fragmentation of training and development interventions, interventions producing non-financial advantages, and insufficient data. The study enhanced the existing information on human resource development and practice by identifying the obstacles to measuring return on investment (ROI). Additionally, it offered practical advice and suggestions for future research.

Incorporating digital scholarship content in South African library and information science schools

PurposeThe library and information science (LIS) profession experienced drastic changes in its job requirements due to emerging digital scholarship trends, especially the growth of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). As a result, there is a discrepancy between the job market and the LIS curriculum. This study addresses this gap by looking into incorporating digital scholarship into the LIS school curricula in South Africa. This may have implications for other contexts as well, because digital scholarship is becoming pervasive.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopted a constructivist paradigm using a qualitative approach and a multiple case study design. Primary data using semi-structured interviews were collected from 10 academics at LIS schools and 10 librarians from both academic and special research council libraries in South Africa.FindingsThe study revealed that LIS schools did not have content on digital scholarship such as research data management (RDM), digitisation, metadata standards, open access, institutional repositories and other related content. Stakeholders who needed to be consulted included librarians, information technology (IT) and information and communication technology (ICT) specialists, computer scientists, humanists, the South Africa Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and LIS professional bodies. There were gaps and redundancies in the curriculum as far as digital scholarship was concerned. Digital scholarship presented opportunities for librarians and academics to acquire emerging jobs and to collaborate more in the digital space.Originality/valueThe article advances knowledge on the importance of incorporating digital scholarship in the LIS curriculum in South Africa. Furthermore, it provides guidance regarding stakeholders to be consulted when incorporating content into the LIS curriculum with the intention of closing the gaps and curbing or removing discrepancies between job requirements and graduates’ skills and competencies.

Curriculum design in higher education: A reflection

The ideology of curriculum design is believed to be the core of teaching and learning, yet it is in direct opposition to current notions of curriculum development. The contextual factors that underpin teaching and learning are derived from curriculum design. The principal factors that influence what is being taught may be categorised into three levels: the macro, meso and micro. At the macro level, there are national and international influences such as globalisation, massification, and marketization. Also, socio-economic, and political influence may be included. At the meso-level the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and institutional level influence is forthcoming. Issues such as policies, culture, location, student profile and so forth are examined. Also, external influence from employers, professional bodies, accreditation bodies, quality agencies as well as political redress is evaluated. The micro-level examines individual academics and support staff concerning personal theories, beliefs, and professional knowledge. Systems theory in the educational context views the institution as a system where there is an interaction of variables of input, process and output that enable learning to take place. Because of the complexity and nature of curriculum design, there is limited change in this critical sphere of the education system. This paper reflects on the design and development of a curriculum in an open distance learning higher education institution.

Research excellence and productivity for global impact at an African university

ABSTRACT The South African government announcement on revisiting the Policy for the Recognition of Higher Education Institutional Types has caused anxiety and ambivalence among Universities of Technology (UoTs), institutions that lack a solid foundation for conducting leading research. Most underperforming UoTs feared a possible downgrade or de-classification from being universities to becoming university colleges by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), potentially triggering attrition of experienced academic staff and students to prominent research-intensive universities. Paradoxically, this ambivalence has also stimulated renewed public interest and discourse on the constitution of research excellence and productivity for greater impact and their significance in UoTs contexts, as universities compete for academic existence, space and relevance amid highly demanding multiple stakeholders in the global community. Addressing specific aspects of research excellence and productivity, this conceptual paper employs Institutional Theory, secondary data of research productivity and the researcher’s reflective insights to locate specific disciplinary areas where one UoT (hereinafter called ‘Protea University’) demonstrated formidable strength and research excellence areas it downplayed that require improvement. The study also proposes concrete strategies for transitioning this university to become a world-class leading research university in a volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) world. The study proposes differentiated academic promotion criteria, research impact-lead international collaborations, benchmarking of the research practices and habits of research-intensive universities, innovation and consultancy-driven third-stream income generation and advancement of science communication as areas this UoT can build on to promote its image, reputation and drive of becoming a leading university on the African continent.

Gauging student readiness for university education: a transitional journey

Access to higher education in South Africa remains one of the principal components of the transformation agenda, driven by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). During apartheid, access to education was racialised. Despite the massive participation rates by previously marginalised groups in the post-apartheid dispensation, epistemological access remains worrisome. Transformation of the higher education system is a key dimension the democratic government has undertook to use to measure the progress of social transformation, as an enabler for student readiness and smooth transition to university education. In this study, we use distributive analysis in a random sample of 1,940 first time-entering students (FTENs) from diverse population groups and backgrounds to establish readiness and the existence of a coordinated transition from basic to higher education. To establish readiness the study assesses first-year students’ academic attitudes and needs, background, and motivational factors, as well as general well-being. To establish the existence of a planned and coordinated transition, a specific attention is paid to career guidance, qualification choice, as well as background and motivational factors. The findings show that despite the clear theoretical framework for a transformed higher education system, there is still no pronounced and planned coordination between basic and higher education. Secondly, the preuniversity socioeconomic conditions signal a long journey still needing to be travelled to achieve a transformed higher education. This is demonstrated by skills gap, lack of basic academic and motivational support, needed to build a global competitive and ready student.

Barriers to the measurement of return on investment (ROI) for training interventions in the South African higher education context

This article aimed to investigate the barriers to the measurement of return on investment (ROI) for training and development interventions provided to academic staff in the South African public higher education context. The study adopted an interpretivist philosophical stance, and it was grounded on qualitative approach. Purposive sampling was used to select 14 participants who were interviewed. The participants represented various cases (institutions) and these included six universities, and government institutions comprising the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI), and the Education, Training and Development Practices Sector Education and Training Authority (ETDPSETA). Thematic analysis was applied via ATLAS.ti to analyse the interview data. The complexity of the process, lack of capacity, lag between training and improved performance, lack of will, financial constraints, lack of processes, fragmentation of training and development interventions, interventions yielding non-financial benefits, and lack of adequate data were found to be the factors that are barriers to the measurement of ROI. The study contributed to the body of knowledge of Human Resource Development and practice by highlighting the barriers to the measurement of ROI and it also provided recommendations for practice and future studies. Keywords: Return on investment; Training and development; Higher education sector; Public universities; Academic staff; Training evaluation.

Repositioning the Teaching Approaches towards Accounting Curriculum Implementation in Selected South African Rural Secondary Schools

This study was triggered by the poor academic performance of accounting learners in rural secondary schools in South Africa. Through constructivist learning theory the study aimed at repositioning teaching approaches that may be used to implement Accounting curriculum effectively in South African rural secondary schools. Qualitative approaches were used in generating data from twelve (12) teachers through face-to-face interviews and observation in the classroom. All participants came from one circuit management. This study offered innovative ideas to all parties interested in the implementation of innovative teaching and learning approaches that can enhance learners’ academic performance in accounting. The study recommends that qualified experts be part of the capacity-building programmes that are used to equip teachers with knowledge and skills on Accounting teaching pedagogies ; the collaboration of the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) be strengthened, a handbook of teaching strategies be developed by professional bodies in Accounting to strengthen Accounting teaching strategies for rural secondary schools; and the review of the curriculum content and the teaching hours of Economics and Management Sciences require urgent attention.

Exploring the perceptions of lecturers and final year students about the infusion of inclusion in initial teacher education programmes in South Africa

IntroductionSouth Africa embraced the move to inclusive education after the political transformation in 1994 by partaking in and subscribing to the international Education for All (EFA) drive initiated in 1990 at the Jomtien World Conference on Education for All, which declared that all children, youth and adults should receive a basic education. Furthermore, the Salamanca Statement of 1994 the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) of 2006 and the Sustainable Development Goal 4 are internationally regarded as the most important influence on the transformation of education systems to become more inclusive and consequently continue to have an important influence on education policies and practices in South Africa. The key policy driving inclusive education in South Africa is Education White Paper 6 (EWP6). EWP6 affirms that teachers play a central role in implementing an inclusive education system. Therefore, training is emphasized as a key strategy to enable educators to become more inclusive in their teaching practices. The focus of this article is on Initial Teacher Education (ITE) for inclusion. Influenced by international developments to transform ITE programmes and the national endorsement of inclusive education the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) embarked on a project called the Teaching and Learning Capacity Development Improvement Project (TLCDIP). The project reported on in this article was one facet of the TLCDIP and focused specifically on teacher education for inclusion in the Foundation (Reception to Grade 3) and Intermediate Phases (Grade 4 to 6) of the Baccalaureus Educationis (B Ed) programme.MethodsThe primary research aim was: To explore the perceptions of final year students and their lecturers in ITE programmes regarding the preparation of pre-service teachers for teaching in inclusive and diverse learning environments. A qualitative research approach was employed to gain in-depth and rich data. Purposive sampling was used including final year students and their lecturers. Open questionnaires and group interviews were employed as data generation strategies.ResultsAn inductive thematic analysis showed that the following themes were identified by the participants as critical to be considered in the development and implementation of ITE programmes: Understanding inclusive education, which is also linked to knowledge; the disconnect between theory and practice, the lack of knowledge and practical experience regarding inclusive teaching strategies and how inclusion is addressed in the B Ed curriculum.

Towards Sustainable Service Delivery by South African Local Authorities: A Community Participation Strategy

With the advent of democracy in 1994, the South African government introduced various initiatives as part of youth skills development intervention programmes, and one of such programmes is the internship programme, which is aimed at exposing graduates to workplace dynamics and getting young people to develop their practical skills to nature careers. This programme, however, has its own challenges, especially on the part of the students, who, after completion, appear to struggle finding sustainable employment, which, in turn, renders the programme questionable. The aim of this study is to analyse the skill relevance of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) internship programme in preparing interns for permanent employment in the employment sector. This study was empirical and used qualitative methods to analyse the skills acquired by interns during the internship programme at DHET. The sample from which data was gleaned consisted of senior managers and interns placed in different units within the department. While the concept of an internship is admirable for exposing graduates to various employment sectors, the study discovered some flaws in its implementation. For example, it was established that the process of placing interns in the DHET was almost done haphazardly, with little consideration of the linkage between their educational background and the units where training occurs. Therefore, this defeats the general mission of the programme itself and is the cause of the diminished future employment prospects of the students. The study recommended, among other things, that DHET provide graduate interns with technical and strategic training opportunities tailored to their specific career needs in order to improve their employability prospects. Possible ways to overcome the internship-related problems identified in the study are outlined towards the end of this article.

Factors Affecting Pre-service Teachers’ Acceptance of Online Learning to Promote Social Distancing

The outbreak of the novel Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which was declared a global pandemic on 11 March 2020, has upended the world. To combat its spread, social distancing was adopted as recommended by health professionals and the higher education institutions (HEIs) were not spared. Despite the continuation of the academic agenda, social distancing forced lecturers and their students apart. As a result, the goal of this study was to examine factors that influence pre-service teachers’ acceptance of online learning to promote social distancing. The study used a quantitative design, with data gathered from 163 pre-service teachers. It was underpinned by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Partial Least Squares–Structural Equation Modelling (PLS–SEM) was used to test the hypothesised model using SmartPLS version 3.2.8 in the analysis. The model identified six factors that predict pre-service teachers’ acceptance of online learning, with a variance of 66.8% in behavioural intention to use online learning. This means that the six factors were good predictors of pre-service teachers’ acceptance of online learning to promote social distancing. Pre-service teachers’ perceived attitude towards the use of online learning plays a key role in their acceptance of online learning given its explained variance of 54.7%. As a result, in order for online learning to properly promote social distancing, the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) should focus more on the factors that improve pre-service teachers’ attitude towards using it.

Impact(s) of Quality Assurance Requirements for Private Higher Education Institutions in South Africa

The surge and expansion of Private Higher Education Institutions (PHEIs) in South Africa is an indication that the private sector education is making significant progress. As a result, the PHEIs are considered as being in competition with Public Higher Institutions. This situation is envisaged to influence the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) to tighten its policies in order to control the PHEIS. Using the Octet quality theory, developed by Zaki and Zaki Rashidi. and the documentary content analysis research method, this study analyses ways in which quality assurance is used to curtail the growth of PHEIS. The findings of the study showed that some of the contributions of PHEIs are driven by the demand for higher learning opportunities in the republic, though faced by various challenges and barriers in fulfilling the quality assurance requirements in respect of accreditation the DHET. The paper submits that PHEIS are not in competition with Public Higher Educational Institutions, rather they are to be seen as complementing the vision of the DHET in its efforts to improve the South African Higher Education System. Thus, partnership between the private and the public institutions is recommended for the achievement of desired positive impacts.

Emerging Evidence on Student Funding: A Case of a South African Historically Disadvantaged Institution

Decreasing real value in fiscal allocations to higher education is crippling the sector’s ability to effectively respond to its broader social and economic transformation mandate enjoined in the South African Constitution. Improving student access, retention, and throughput rate are leading priorities of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) to achieve this mandate. Student funding, therefore, has been a shared responsibility of both the private and public sector since the dawn of democracy. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed the status quo, especially with eroded income bases for most businesses and households. Despite recovering financially, the priority of the private sector has been to maintain stability and regain market share. How sustainable is student funding for historically disadvantaged institutions (HDIs) in the post-COVID epoch? The study uses descriptive analysis of quantitative data of registered first-time entering students (FTENs) at Walter Sisulu University (WSU) for 2021 and 2022 to decompose the funding dynamics and further quantify the size of FTEN debt. The study shows that about 17 per cent of the FTENs do not receive funding and that 99 per cent of the funded population are catered for by the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS). The remaining 1 per cent is catered for by non-governmental organisations (NGOs), local municipalities, and some government developmental entities. The study also shows that the size of FTEN debt incurred yearly is above R60 million and is likely to increase as the real value of government financial support decreases. The study proposes a stringent mobilisation of private sector participation, through policy commitment, to student funding to improve access.

Glaucoma knowledge of patients in Abuja, Nigeria

This year, 2012, marks the fifteenth consecutive year of publication of the Africa Journal of Nursing and Midwifery (AJNM) and its fifth year of publication as an academic journal accredited by South Africa's Department of Higher Education and Training (DoHET). This accreditation is a major accomplishment. Retaining its status as an academic accredited journal is the major focus of the journal's editors and editorial board, and poses challenges for exceeding the minimum expected standards of every DoHET audit. Meeting these expectations necessitates repeated revisions of most manuscripts and the rejection of some manuscripts. The critical factor for retaining its DoHET accreditation is the quality of every article published by the AJNM, rather than the number of articles or the number of issues published during any year. The major reasons for manuscripts being rejected include the manuscripts being based on outdated data, outdated references, incorrect statistics, incomplete qualitative data analysis or aspects irrelevant to the nurses and midwives of the 52 countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) Africa region. This is a non-negotiable requirement because the AJNM strives to provide a publication and communication platform for the nurses and midwives from these African countries.

Beyond heteronormativity towards social justice: Disrupting gender operationalisation in teaching and learning trends in higher education

Quantitative approaches, based on numerical analyses of operationalised variables, used to present teaching and learning trends in higher education, are pervasive. However, teaching and learning trends disaggregated by gender are generally collected and/or reported according to a binary operationalisation. The gender binary is associated with heteronormative dispositions. This paper examines the extent to which gender operationalisation, as it relates specifically to teaching and learning trends in South Africa, promotes heteronormative dispositions and the consequent implications for social justice. Framed within Nancy Fraser’s approach to social justice, heteronormative dispositions constitute misrecognition and hence injustice. Based on a review of data gathering and reporting on teaching and learning trends by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), it is clear that, at present, non-binary expressions or analyses of gender are misrecognised. The paper argues that gender operationalisation associated with trends in teaching and learning contributes to heteronormative dispositions that are not commensurate with social justice. It calls for the disruption of binary gender operationalisation linked to teaching and learning trends as a mechanism for full recognition and socially just knowledge production. This paper does not focus on research in a moment of social disruption but rather seeks to disrupt research processes which could be exclusionary and promote injustice, and thus interrupt socially-unjust representations, specifically as it relates to gender.

Practitioner’s Perspectives on a National South African Higher Education Institution Policy Framework Mitigating Gender-Based Violence at a South African University

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a crime that violates the right to life, equality, human dignity, freedom and security of a person (South African Constitution, Act No 108 of 1996). The prevention and management of GBV is a critical transformation imperative and has in recent years (2014 to 2021) come under the spotlight at South African universities. The National Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) developed a policy framework to guide post-school education and training institutions to address GBV in 2020. This article is a practitioner’s assessment and reflection of how the DHET policy framework on GBV can be implemented at Stellenbosch University, a public higher education institution (HEI) in South Africa. We look at how to integrate recommendations made in the GBV policy framework at South African universities and what are the current constraints that throttle GBV interventions. We reflect on existing mechanisms and policy recommendations that still need to be operationalised to effectively respond to GBV at universities. This article further assesses how institutional policy development, professional administrative and support services, and senior leadership structures can be leveraged to include, and efficiently implement, some of the GBV policy framework recommendations to address GBV at HEIs and in South Africa more broadly.

Nature of TVET Lecturer Learning During Work Integrated Learning: A South African Perspective

The purpose of the study was to explore Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) lecturers learning through Work Integrated Learning (WIL), specifically to establish the nature of their learning and determine how the lecturers understood their learning. However, since the launch of this WIL initiative, what these lecturers learnt, and how they understand their learning has not been researched. This study sought to investigate the nature of learning of these lecturers. The study was conducted in three TVET colleges in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province. Kolb’s experiential learning theory was used to undergird the study. The research was located in the interpretive paradigm, which used a multiple case study design. A qualitative research approach was adopted. Convenience sampling design was usedto select three TVET colleges as well as industries hosting WIL lecturers. Eighteen TVET lecturers were purposively sampled from a population of lecturers in the three TVET colleges. Data were generated using semi-structured face-to-face interviews from lecturers who completed WIL and those who were on WIL during the study. The study used thematic and narrative analysis to analyse data. Findings revealed that lecturers gained practical experiences through teamwork, networking and sharing of experiences and ideas with industry personnel, diagnosis, troubleshooting, and repairing engineering components during WIL. The study recommended capacitating all TVET lecturers with practical industry skills. The findings showed that TVET lecturers did not simply go to an industry site and pick up new experiences from their practice but learnt from others. Recommendations from the study informed the discussions and policy decisions in the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), Swiss-South African Cooperation Initiative (SSACI) and Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) on this WIL initiative, and may influence provision of other forms of support necessary for the TVET sector.

THE ACADEMIC JOURNEY OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS. THE SYSTEMS THEORY APPROACH

In its fifth report, South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), published on 31 March 2020, called for institutions to carefully investigate undergraduate business education (curricula) after the business, economics, and management studies (in the Classification of Educational Subject Matter (CESM)) category presented the highest dropouts and lowest throughput rates. To understand the academic journey of entrepreneurship students, this study reviewed the literature through the lens of the General Systems Theory (GST), together with Tuckman’s (1999) Tripartite Model of Motivation for Achievement (TMMA). Accordingly, this study viewed the journey of students as a dynamic system with the students having some characteristics and motivations (inputs) when entering higher education, and what the higher education institutions should do (processes) to achieve improved academic performance (output) of students. From the literature reviewed, this study suggests the need to profile students based on their pre-enrolment information and capturing the perceptions of what they think influenced their academic performance in high school. Apart from this, the need to understand the entrepreneurial profile of students has been suggested considering the importance of entrepreneurship in employment creation, especially in South Africa, with an unemployment rate of 32.6%. Thus, it is necessary to produce graduates with the much-needed entrepreneurial capabilities in the South African economy.

South Africa’s adult educators in the community college sector: Who they are and how they view their training, their work and their position

This article examines the work context of South Africa’s state-employed adult educators. It is based largely on a recent cross-sectional study of adult educators commissioned by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), which draws on the DHET’s database of adult educators and qualitative information gained from visits to adult education and training centres in all nine provinces. The study enquired into adult educators’ working lives, their qualifications, their sense of whether their training was adequate, the issue of further training, their understanding of their work, their conditions of service and the support they believe they need. The study showed that the number of adult educators employed by the DHET is declining steadily and that the working conditions of adult educators are uneven: a few work in fairly well-resourced urban centres, but many work in poor conditions, with little support. Nevertheless, the study indicated that almost all the adult educators view their role in a positive light. Confident of support from one another, they have a definite shared identity as a social group and express a strong commitment to their learners and the communities in which they work. Overall, they constitute a group with strong, yet poorly tapped, potential to contribute to positive community development.

Counting what counts: A researcher productivity scoring framework for South African's universities of technology

One of the three objectives of academic institutions all over the world is that of ensuring and upholding vibrant research productivity. For developing countries such as South Africa, public spending on research and development provides mechanisms for this. The South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) is the custodian of government research funds. Evidence shows that DHET continues to grapple with the challenge of objectively measuring research productivity from the research funds invested in universities. The current funding framework applied by DHET has received numerous criticism one of them being its quantitative nature - it rewards quantity as opposed to quality research. This problem is more pronounced in Universities of Technology (UoTs) where, after more than ten years of operating as universities, the culture of research is not yet fully entrenched. Acknowledging the critical role played by research productivity measurements, we present a research productivity and quality measurement framework for UoTs. Using a case study of one of the UoTs, quantitative data relating to 48 aspects of the of existing research incentive system was used in determining the system’s effectiveness and efficacy in stimulating researchers’ activities. The proposed Framework consists of three components on: how to motivate researchers, what/how to measure research performance and how to incentivise researchers. Using an actual dataset of research outputs from the case study, an illustration on how to apply the framework has been provided. The results confirm our Framework’s ability to “count what counts” and proven the statement that “not everything that can be counted counts”.

Dissecting the Research Productivity of South African Universities Situated in the Western Cape, Prior to COVID-19: An Online Desktop Study

In South Africa, universities offer qualifications to eligible students for them to graduate. For universities to operate, academic staff are appointed to instruct and/or to conduct research. Considering the non-conducive South African economic landscape, it is not surprising that South African universities have started to place focus on second stream income generation and third stream income generation, which includes the generation of government subsidy income for published Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) accredited research outputs. Notwithstanding the above, research suggests that South African universities have tasked academic staff with excessive teaching and learning workloads which makes it difficult for them to contribute to the overall research productivity of these institutions. This online desktop study ascertained whether the research productivity of South African universities (operating in the Western Cape) are adversely affected by excessive student enrollments, prior to COVID-19. The foregoing may cause stringent teaching and learning workloads on academic staff. From the research conducted, it appears that at least two South African universities made use of a balanced approach to appoint academic staff that are solely responsible for conducting research; appoint academic staff that are solely responsible for instructing; appointing academic staff that are responsible for conducting research and to instruct. Where such a balanced approach was followed, it yielded reasonably calculated student to academic staff ratios and calculated accredited output per academic staff member ratios.