Non-metric Dental Traits Research Articles

Analysis of non-metric dental traits for ethnicity identification in a mixed population of Uttar Pradesh

BackgroundForensic odontology involves the identification of individuals through dental records, making it a crucial tool in legal investigations. Non-metric dental traits (NMDT), which are variations in dental morphology play a key role as these traits are inherited characteristics that can help establish biological relationships or ancestry. Thus, we aim to assess the frequency and variability of NMDT in the human dentition of four ethnically mixed populations in Uttar Pradesh. This study can aid in the future by maintaining records of ethnic groups and their variability, which can be crucial for disaster victim management and forensic odontology. MethodsThe study was conducted on a total of 100 patients coming to the OPD of Oral Medicine and Oral Pathology and Microbiology of King George's Medical University from January 2022 to July 2023. Impressions of both arches were made for participants using irreversible hydrocolloid (alginate), and casts were examined under a stereomicroscope to assess 15 different morphological characteristics. ResultsNMDTs such as winging, shoveling, double-shoveling interruption groove, canine mesial ridge, hypocone, metacone, carabelli's trait, peg-shaped incisors, peg-shaped molar, premolar lingual cusp variation, deflecting wrinkle, protostylid, metaconulid, entoconulid was evaluated. The NMDTS were evaluated in four different ethnics Nordics, Mediterranean, Oriental Mediterranean, and Protoaustraloid amongst which various traits showed a statistically significant variation among the population of Uttar Pradesh. ConclusionThe sample studied presented confirmed supernumerary traits like metacone, protostylid, carabellis trait, metaconulid, premolar lingual cusp variation, and deflecting wrinkle were seen highest in Nordic, Mediterranean, Oriental Mediterranean, and Protoaustraloid ethnicity have a significant association with the Uttar Pradesh population.

Identification of the genetic determinants of shovel-shaped incisors and Carabelli’s cusp

Shovel-shaped incisors (SSI) and Carabelli’s cusp (CC) are noteworthy human dental non-metric traits which presence and degree of expression have been reported to cluster within distinct populations. Recent advances in developmental biology suggest that SSI and CC are likely under polygenic developmental control; therefore, genetic variation in multiple genes is likely to contribute to differential SSI and CC expression. The exact genetic mechanisms underlying variation in SSI and CC development, however, remain mostly unknown. This study aims to identify whether variation in the basal DNA sequences of six candidate genes, NKX2-3, SOSTDC1, BMP4, FGF3, FGF4, and WNT10A, has any impact on SSI and/or CC expression. Study methods involve collection of saliva samples and dental data from 36 participants. The Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System (ASUDAS) has been used to score SSI and CC expression. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods were utilized to sequence the entire gene region of the candidate genes. Spearman’s correlation test was used to score the relationship between the genotype and degree of trait expression of participants. Fifteen SNPs/INDELs belonging to SOSTDC1, FGF3, FGF4 and WNT10A were significantly associated with SSI and/or CC expression. No SNPs/INDELs were detected in the genes BMP4 and NKX2-3 that significantly contributes to observed phenotypes. FGF3, FGF4, SOSTDC1 and WNT10A were possibly involved in the formation of shoveling and Carabelli’s cusp. However, because of the small sample size, more studies are needed to confirm their role and rule out any potential role of NKX2-3 and BMP4 in the production of SSI and CC.

Craniological and Dental Non-Metric Data on the Origin of the Early Iron Age Gorokhovo Culture Population

The article is devoted to the research of craniological and dental non-metric data from Sargat and Gorokhovo burials. Gorokhovo Culture groups were located in the Upper and Middle Iset and Middle Tobol River regions in 6th–3rd cc BC. The research examines the anthropological uniqueness of the population of the Gorokhovo Culture and the racial and genetic processes that occurred in the forest-steppe territory in the south of Western Siberia in the Early Iron Age. It was established that the sample of the Gorokhovo Culture can be classified as Caucasian populations with a small Mongoloid admixture. Two Caucasian combinations of characteristics have been identified. The morphotype with a narrower and higher face profiled horizontally, a higher nose bridge and a larger angle of protrusion of the nasal bones in retrospect may be associated with groups of Andronovo-Alakul people; later this complex was represented as part of the Sauromatian-Sarmatian population of the European part of Russia. Found in the West Siberian Gorokhovo population it may be due to migration influence. Another Caucasoid component with a lower and wider slightly flattened facial skeleton, a less protruding nose and bridge of the nose is in many ways similar to the morphotype of the AndronovoFedorovo, and the later Sargat population. In this case we can talk about the autochthony origin. Dental nonmetric data organically complements the current results. Dental non-metric traits results demonstrates that the basis of the anthropological composition of the Gorokhovo population was the Andronovo component of South Ural origin. The population of the Sargat culture and the Gorokhovo groups who lived at the same time in the Tobol River Region in the 5th–3rd cc BC differ significantly. However, close population ties between the Sargat and Gorokhovo and their contacts with the Sarmatians contributed to the convergence of their anthropological structure.

The Prevalence and Association of Non-metric Dental Traits With Dentoskeletal Malocclusion and ABO Blood Groups in the Maharashtrian Population

The Prevalence and Association of Non-metric Dental Traits With Dentoskeletal Malocclusion and ABO Blood Groups in the Maharashtrian Population

Nonmetric Traits in Permanent Teeth as Clues to Ethnicity in Vidarbha Subpopulation to Aid Forensic Profiling: Pilot Study

Abstract Introduction: Nonmetric dental traits have a crucial role in ethnic classification of populations that help in forensic racial identification. Many studies have demonstrated the differences in the expression and frequency of dental traits between various ethnic groups for ancestry determination in the context of forensic dental anthropology. The present study is an attempt to assess the frequency and variation in nonmetric traits for establishing ethnicity in the Vidarbha subpopulation. Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the frequency and variation of nonmetric traits in permanent teeth for establishing ethnicity in the Vidarbha subpopulation. Materials and Methods: Participants of the Vidarbha subpopulation were selected by random sampling method. Molars, premolars, and incisors were evaluated for frequency of nonmetric traits, and variations were graded according to Dentoanthropological System of State University of Arizona criteria. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square test, and Student’s t-test were used for analysis of data. Results: The most common occlusal morphology in mandibular first and second molar was 5 cusp and 4 cusp, respectively, with the “+” groove pattern. Cusp 3 and cusp 4 were observed frequently in the maxillary molars. One lingual cusp was most commonly seen in mandibular premolars show while incisors showed faint shoveling. Conclusion: Our study concludes that nonmetric traits were present and showed variation in permanent maxillary and mandibular teeth among the Vidarbha subpopulation. Cusp 5 and Cusp 4 in first and second mandibular molars, respectively, groove pattern “+” and grade 1 protostylid were the most frequent grades observed in permanent mandibular molars. One lingual cusp was most commonly seen in mandibular premolars and faint shoveling was a notable feature in incisors of this population.

Results of the analysis of intra-observer and inter-observer discrepancies in the assessment of some non-metric dental traits

Results of the analysis of intra-observer and inter-observer discrepancies in the assessment of some non-metric dental traits

New insights on Celtic migration in Hungary and Italy through the analysis of non-metric dental traits.

The Iron Age is characterized by an extended interweaving of movements by Celts in Europe. Several waves of Celts from Western and Central Europe migrated southeast and west from the core area of the La Téne culture (between Bourgogne and Bohemia). Through the analysis of non-metric dental traits, this work aims to understand the biological relationship among Celtic groups arrived in Italy and the Carpathian Basin, as well as between local populations and Celtic newcomers. A total of 10 non-metric dental traits were analyzed to evaluate biological affinities among Celts (Sopron-Krautacker and Pilismarót-Basaharc) and Scythians-related populations from Hungary (Tápiószele), Celts from continental Europe (Switzerland and Austria), two Iron Age Etruscan-Celtic sites from northern Italy (Monterenzio Vecchio and Monte Bibele), 13 Iron Age central-southern Italic necropolises, and the northern Italian Bronze Age necropolis of Scalvinetto. Strontium isotopes were measured on individuals from the necropolis of Monte Bibele to infer their local or non-local origin. Results highlight the existence of statistically significant differences between Celts and autochthonous Italian groups. Celtic groups from Hungary and Italy (i.e., non-local individuals of Monterenzio Vecchio and Monte Bibele) share a similar biological background, supporting the historical records mentioning a common origin for Celts migrated to the eastern and southern borders of today's Europe. The presence of a supposed Steppean ancestry both in Celts from Hungary and Celts from northern Italy corroborates the hypothesis of the existence of a westward migration of individuals and genes from the Steppe towards northern Italy during the Bronze and Iron Age, which contributed to the biological variability of pre-Celtic and later Celtic populations, respectively. Conversely, individuals from central-southern Italy show an autochthonous pre-Iron Age background. Lastly, this work supports the existence of Celtic migratory routes in northern Italy, as shown by biological and cultural admixture between Celts and Italics living together.

The rise of coastal Middle Bronze Age Levant - A multidisciplinary approach for investigating in Sidon, Lebanon.

The Levantine Middle Bronze Age (MBA, circa 2000-1500 BCE) marks a period of increased trade and regional interaction, spurred on by technological developments. In light of previous research exhibiting limited mobility in Sidon, further investigation was conducted using biodistance analysis to understand local population history and site development. Dental nonmetric traits, a proxy for genetic information, were explored using ASUDAS on a sub-sample of primary inhumations (n = 35). The biodistance matrix was generated using Gower distance measures, and further tested using PERMDISP, PERMANOVA, Mantel test and hierarchical cluster analysis. The data was also contrasted to 87 Sr/86 Sr and δ18 O as well as δ13 C and δ15 N values. There were no significant diachronic differences in isotopes values, and there was biological continuity (n = 35, Mantel test r = 0.11, p = 0.02, comparing local phases and biodistance). The analysis also suggested of a sub-group of individuals with biological proximity shared a more limited range of mobility and dietary habits. The isotopes (87 Sr/86 Sr, δ18 O, δ13 C, δ15 N) and biodistance analysis conducted on the Sidon College site skeletal assemblage exhibits stability and continuity of the people, despite the site's increasing role in the maritime network. This continuity may have been a key factor in Sidon's success, allowing it to accumulate wealth and resources for centuries to come.

Metric and Non-Metric Dental Traits of Premolars with Root Canals Configuration among the Egyptians

Metric and Non-Metric Dental Traits of Premolars with Root Canals Configuration among the Egyptians

Who Were the Hyksos?

The term “Hyksos” commonly refers to the foreign dynasty that inhabited and held power in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, ca. 1650–1550 BCE. The later historian Manetho described the Hyksos as invading foreigners, and this view persisted until the modern period. Recent research has integrated archaeological, artistic, and textual evidence revealing the Hyksos origin and presence in Egypt to be more complex than previously envisioned. To investigate the provenance of the so-called Hyksos, human remains from Tell el-Dab’a, the ancient Hyksos capital of Avaris, were analyzed using Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System dental nonmetric traits. An intra- and intersite biodistance analysis of individuals from Tell el-Dab’a (n = 92) and other contemporary sites in the Near East (n = 285) was conducted. Two statistical tests, mean measure of divergence and Gower distance analysis, were selected. The archaeological and biological evidence suggests continued occupation spanning from the end of the Middle Kingdom through the Hyksos dynasty, offering further evidence contra Manetho, who described a sudden invasion. The intersite analysis supports the archaeological finds from Tell el-Dab’a, suggesting that not only commodities but also people made their way to Tell el-Dab’a.

Exploring Maya population history of Central Belize from Late Preclassic to Late/Terminal Classic

This study expands upon previous bioarchaeological research in Central Belize, focusing on broadening the current understanding of the region’s population history through a comparative analysis of nonmetric dental traits. Estimates of biological distance were calculated using several statistical methods to identify consistent relationships between groups. In general, groups tended to cluster as expected based on geographic proximity, with Petén, Calakmul, and Late Classic Belize Valley forming one regional node and sites in the northern Yucatan forming another. The Early Central Belize group (Late Preclassic / Protoclassic, 300 BCE – AD 300) was most closely affiliated with sites to the west, including Barton Ramie in the neighboring Upper Belize River Valley, and Petén, which is consistent with archaeological indicators of early economic and political ties among sites in this broader region. However, the Late Central Belize group (Late – Terminal Classic, AD 590–880) is morphologically distinct from the earlier Central Belize group, and does not show clear and consistent affinities to any of the other samples. We interpret these results to mean that the rapid construction of large civic ceremonial centers in the Roaring Creek and Caves Branch River Valleys of Central Belize around the 7th century CE coincided with the arrival of a new group or groups, likely from a region not represented in our current comparative sample.

Biological affinities of Brazilian pre-colonial coastal communities explored through bootstrapped biodistances of dental non-metric traits

Based on dental morphology, it was recently suggested that the Southeast Coast of Brazil was inhabited by different biological groups throughout the Holocene. Among those that inhabited São Paulo state, coastal shellmound builders seem biologically distant from riverine shellmound builders. Additionally, individuals that later built ichthyological sites are also biologically distant from both early coastal or riverine populations. However, mainly due to low sample sizes, such conclusions may not be reliable, and require further inquiry. Here, we explore the confidence interval of biological affinities among five archaeological series (Piaçaguera, Buracão, Tenório, Mar Virado and Moraes), composed by 128 individuals from different chronological and archaeological backgrounds. We use a bootstrapping analysis of biodistances, which illustrates the expected error that results from sample sizes, by generating density estimations based on the observed biological affinities among series. Our results contradict previous claims based on dental analyses by showing that individuals from ichthyological sites cannot actually be considered distinct from Southeast coastal and riverine shellmound builders. On the other hand, it shows that early coastal and riverine shellmound builders are not biologically related, thus supporting prior assumptions of high phenotypic variation among Southeast shellmound builders, at least within the scope of São Paulo state. Finally, although shellmound builders are related to individuals from ichthyological sites to some extent, early and later coastal shellmound builders of this area do not appear to be biologically related, which further highlights the complex dynamics of population movement in the area.

Jordanian migration and mobility in the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2100–1550 BCE) at Pella

AbstractThe site of Pella, located in the foothills of the east Jordan valley, was a prosperous city–state throughout the Middle Bronze Age (MBA, ca. 2000–1500 BCE). As part of a widespread trading network, Pella enjoyed extensive socio‐economic relationships with Egypt, Cyprus, and the Aegean, Anatolia, and Babylonia during this period. We report isotopic analysis (87Sr/86Sr, δ18O, and δ13C) from enamel of 22 human permanent second molars of which 13 second lower molars were used for an additional biodistance analysis based on ASUDAS. The multidisciplinary approach investigates the ancestral background of MBA Pella and the degree of temporary or more permanent relocation from other settlements. Ancillary to carbonate isotope analysis for migration investigation, dietary information in the form of δ13Ccarbonate was also collected. δ13Ccarbonate values (mean −12.3‰ ± 0.4 SD) suggest a uniform diet reliant on C3 cereals and legumes as crops and animal fodder, adhering to expected Bronze Age Levantine dietary norms. Two methods are used to identify non‐locals. Using a biospheric baseline, three individuals with non‐local 87Sr/86Sr ratios are identified. Bagplot analysis of both 87Sr/86Sr and δ18O data suggests that three individuals (14%) grew up elsewhere; two individuals who were already identified as 87Sr/86Sr outliers using biospheric data and one more with outlying δ18O values. All individuals identified as non‐locals, using either method, are from one tomb, Tomb 62. The dental nonmetric traits indicated diverse morphology and subsequent ancestry for Tomb 62 (11/13), whereas primary burials (2/13) clustered together. The commingled condition of Tomb 62 material prevented a more exhaustive biodistance analysis, but the tentative results coincide with interpretations of the tomb. Significant movements of populations throughout the Middle Bronze Age are evidenced through funerary rituals and architecture, and this study demonstrates that Pella, thought to be peripheral, nonetheless had some permanent movement evidenced through isotopes and ancestry analysis.

Comparing individuals buried in flexed and extended positions at the Greek colony of Chersonesos (Crimea) using cranial metric, dental metric, and dental nonmetric traits

AbstractThe Greek colony of Chersonesos was founded in the 5th century BC on the coast of the Crimean Peninsula in the northern Black Sea region. Extensive archeological research has investigated the timing and mode of the Greek land seizure and the responses of the local Taurian tribes, focusing on a large necropolis dating to the earliest period of the colony, somewhere between the 5th and the 4th century BC. Relying on burial traditions as an indicator of the biogeographic origin of the deceased, it was hypothesized that individuals buried in flexed positions were Taurian whereas individuals buried in extended positions were Greek. Here, we test the hypothesis that individuals in flexed and extended burial positions are biologically different by directly analyzing the human skeletal remains. For this, we collected three different types of phenotypic data commonly used for biodistance analysis, namely, (1) cranial measurements, (2) dental measurements, and (3) dental nonmetric traits, recorded for 47 individuals. Using Gower distance coefficients, we combine the three data types in a single analysis and estimate biological relationships among a subset of well‐preserved individuals with documented flexed (n = 8) and extended (n = 13) burial position. The estimated distances show a large amount of overlap between the two groups, with the exception of two individuals that are more divergent. To statistically corroborate this finding, we use distance‐based permutational multivariate analyses of variance (PERMANOVA) and dispersion (PERMDISP). Both analyses reveal no statistically significant differences between the groups, neither in group centroids nor in group dispersions. Our results therefore contradict the idea that burial position was determined by ancestry of the deceased. This has implications for future archeological research at Chersonesos and other Greek colonies of the northern Black Sea region.

Once were warriors: Challenging occupation preconceptions in Lebanese weapon‐associated burials (Middle Bronze Age, Sidon)

AbstractObjectivesFound throughout the ancient Near East during the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000–1600 BCE), many modern scholars emphasize that weapon‐associated burials are ideological and symbolic associations, not reflections of occupation. However, the term “warrior burial” still carries interpretive value that misinforms popular perception. The site of Sidon (Lebanon) offers an excellent context to discuss this phenomenon. Our paper aims to assess whether there are any commonalities or trends that set the Sidonian weapon‐associated burials (n = 6) apart from the rest of the assemblage (n = 62) beyond funerary practice and to explore any patterns regarding occupation and/or elite lifestyle.Materials and methodsThe six skeletons, presumed to be males with funerary practices, associated with high social status and cultural values awarded to the warrior elite, were examined using bioarchaeological methods (paleopathology, activity lesions, stable isotopes and non‐metric dental traits).ResultsWeapon‐associated burials shared similar pathological condition prevalence to the “non‐warriors.” Further, noweapons‐associated burials display common skeletal evidence of interpersonal violence. Additionally, they do not present specific entheseal changes suggestive of frequent weaponry use. δ13C and δ15N analysis of bone collagen found that all weapon‐associated burials except Burial 12 consumed a diet similar to the wider assemblage. Finally, the different avenues of statistical analysis using dental nonmetric traits indicate that the weapon‐associated burials were not from ancestry groups different from the rest of the Sidon population.DiscussionTherefore, we conclude that associating those individuals with copper alloy weaponry is a funerary gesture reflecting more their social and/or cultural status than their occupation and lived experience. We suggest care when using the term “warrior burial” with these types of funerary practices, as it may conflate incorrect interpretation.

The Impact of dental wear on the analysis of morphological affinities based on dental non-metric traits

Dental wear is described as a limitation to dental morphological studies, as it obscures important crown trait features, resulting in significant differences on trait frequencies, an essential component for estimating biodistances. However, the actual impact of dental wear on biological distances still requires further characterization. We explore the impact of dental wear on morphological affinities for Brazilian pre-colonial series in the context of worldwide reference series. Twenty crown traits were scored using the Arizona State University Dental Anthropological System, and dental wear was quantified as an ordinal scale between 1 (no wear) and 8 (crown eroded). Seven crown trait frequencies are significantly associated with dental wear (p<0.05), demonstrating its impact on their analysis. To explore this impact on biodistances, data was divided by wear categories (all teeth, low-wear, moderate/severe wear) and morphological affinities among series was compared through Euclidean distances, Mean Measure of Divergence, and Principal Component Analysis. Results show the impact of wear is only meaningful when a sample contains many wear-biased traits with only moderate/severe wear. We conclude despite the impact of wear on individual trait frequencies, its impact on morphological affinities can be mitigated by including other variables or when comparisons focus only on large-scale biological differences.

The Enigma of the Hyksos, Volume 1: ASOR Conference Boston 2017—ICAANE Conference Munich 2018—Collected Papers

The Enigma of the Hyksos, Volume 1: ASOR Conference Boston 2017—ICAANE Conference Munich 2018—Collected Papers

Infracranial versus cranial nonmetric traits and mtDNA data in the study of genetic divergence of human populations

AbstractAlthough cranial and dental nonmetric traits have proven to be reliable proxies for genetic data, the usefulness of infracranial nonmetric traits as phenetic markers in population affinity studies remains unclear. Our aim was to analyze infracranial and cranial nonmetric trait frequencies in the same samples in comparison with genetic data to determine the value of infracranial nonmetric traits in assessing genetic relationships among populations. We examined the frequencies of 25 cranial and 16 infracranial nonmetric traits in seven adult osteological samples from different regions of northern Eurasia (northern Russians, indigenous populations of Volga–Ural region, Buryats, and Yupik) and the data on mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in the same ethnic groups. The biological distance between each pair of samples was estimated using the Smith's mean measure of divergence (MMD) for nonmetric traits and Cavalli–Sforza distance measure for mtDNA data. Mantel correlations were calculated between two matrices of mean measures of divergence (MMD) distances, and a multidimensional scaling (MDS) procedure was applied to each matrix. The Mantel test showed a strong correlation between the two nonmetric distance matrices. The three‐dimensional spatial representations of each matrix revealed similar patterns of intergroup differences. On both nonmetric MDS maps, the sample locations roughly reflected the geographic separation of the groups, with the exception of northern Russians, who were grouped with Volga–Ural populations. Comparison of our results with those obtained from genetic data confirmed that both sets of nonmetric traits provide reliable genetic affinities among the samples. The association of northern Russians with the Volga–Ural groups can be explained by their genetic background. Our findings show that infracranial nonmetric traits can be successfully used as phenetic markers to define a population's affinity and divergence, particularly in cases where only infracranial bones are available for study.

Application of different dental indicators of disruption to assess 'stress' in three prehistoric samples from northeast Iberian Peninsula

Stress or disruption indicators observed in teeth have well-determined periods of formation, and hence, are especially useful on determining the presence of adverse conditions during childhood. The third millennium BCE in the northern Iberian Peninsula had deep changes in cultural and subsistence patterns, including less diversified diet patterns and higher population density, which has been related to increased disruptive events in human groups. Here, we compared different disruption indicators in teeth of a minimum of 164 individuals from three prehistoric samples from the northeastern of the peninsula: Cova del Pantà de Foix, Bòbila Madurell and Camí de Can Grau. The collection from Cova del Panta de Foix has previously been reported as having high ratios of disruption indicators. We have analysed the presence of LEH defects and fluctuating asymmetry of dental non-metric traits and compared the results obtained by these two different approaches. Our results showed that at the population level these two traits showed no relationship. Specifically, the Cova del Pantà de Foix sample showed the highest ratio of enamel disruption: 37.5% of teeth and 65% of individuals being affected. In contrast, 80% of the analysed traits in Bòbila Madurell were asymmetric, and 60% of these could be determined as fluctuating asymmetry. Additionally, lower second premolars exhibited asymmetry in the highest number of individuals. Altogether, these results suggest that acute disrupting events were common among all populations, but that the individuals from Cova del Pantà de Foix were more exposed to chronic disruption at least during the period of tooth mineralisation. These two indicators, are determined at different points in dental development. Therefore, the observed differences may have been related to the time at which the disruption occurred in childhood in each population, rather than children from one population being affected by more disrupting factors.

Trade Relationships and Gene Flow at Pottery Mound Pueblo, New Mexico

Pottery Mound is a large Ancestral Puebloan site situated within the Middle Rio Grande (MRG) region of New Mexico. This article adds to our understanding of relationships between Pottery Mound, the Western Pueblos, and Mexico through use of biological distance analysis based on dental nonmetric traits. Extensive material and cultural influences, as well as migration events from Western Pueblos to Pottery Mound, have been proposed by several scholars, while others have highlighted parallels to Mexico, especially Paquimé. A total of 1,528 individuals from the U.S. Southwest and Mexico were used to examine relationships between Pottery Mound and these areas. We find no evidence of close biological similarity between Pottery Mound and the Western Pueblos or northern Mexico. Instead, the results indicate biological affinity between Pottery Mound and sites in the MRG region and Mogollon areas. This similarity suggests that although there is evidence for trade between Pottery Mound and other sites in the southwestern United States and Mesoamerica, trade may not have been accompanied by significant gene flow from those areas from which the trade goods originated. It is possible that neighboring regions, such as the Mogollon, served as intermediaries for trade between Pottery Mound and distant regions.