Red Deer Density Research Articles

Spatiotemporal plasticity of prey selection in the wolf

AbstractUnder an optimal foraging scenario, prey selection would be expected to occur when food resources are abundant. A positive frequency‐dependent prey selection would elicit prey switching when the abundance of main food resources decreases, potentially favouring community resilience to the effects of intensive, selective predation on a single prey. We assessed whether a positive frequency‐dependent prey selection by the wolf Canis lupus occurred in two areas hosting abundant populations of wild ungulates, one in northern (Słowiński National Park, Poland) and the other one in southern (Maremma Regional Park, Italy) Europe, throughout a cold semester. In Słowiński, ungulate community was dominated by red deer Cervus elaphus (57% availability) over wild boar Sus scrofa (35%) and roe deer Capreolus capreolus (8%); wild boar and fallow deer Dama dama (43–37%) were more abundant than roe deer (20%) in Maremma. In both areas, wolf diet was dominated by wild ungulates, with a major use of red deer in Słowiński and wild boar in Maremma. Prey selection occurred in both areas, and it was addressed towards the most abundant prey in Słowiński, that is, the red deer, but only towards the wild boar in Maremma, where the fallow deer was used according to availability. In Slowinski, high red deer density may have driven wolf prey selection, while the shifting of activity rhythms of the fallow deer in the Maremma as antipredator response to wolf presence may have reduced predation. Despite its comparable densities between the two areas, the wild boar was selected in Maremma and under‐used in Słowiński. Results provide partial support to positive frequency‐dependent selection, emphasising the spatiotemporal plasticity of wolf–prey relationships. The relative role of prey density and other factors (e.g., antipredator behavioural responses) should be assessed at longer temporal scales.

The gut microbial differences between pre-released and wild red deer: Firmicutes abundance may affect wild adaptation after release.

Insufficient density of red deer has affected the stability of forest ecosystems and the recovery of large carnivores (represented by Amur tiger). Conservation translocations from captivity to the wild has become an important way to restore the red deer populations. However, the difference in gut microbes between pre-release and wild red deer may affect the feeding adaptability of red deer after release. In this study, we clarified the differences in gut microbes between pre-released and wild red deer and screened the key gut microbes of the red deer involved in feeding by using metagenomic sequencing and feeding analysis. The results showed that the microbial difference between pre-released and wild red deer was mainly related to Firmicutes represented by Eubacteriales and Clostridia, and Firmicutes abundance in pre-released red deer (68.23%) was significantly lower than that of wild red deer (74.91%, p < 0.05). The expression of microbial metabolic pathways in pre-released red deer were significantly lower than those in wild red deer (p < 0.05), including carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, glycan biosynthesis and metabolism, etc. The combinations of Firmicutes were significantly positively correlated with the intake of plant fiber and carbohydrate (p < 0.05), and were key microbes to help red deer deal with wild plant resources. Additionally, the combinations of Firmicutes represented by Eubacteriales and Clostridia lacking in pre-released red deer contributed the most to expression of microbial metabolic pathways (importance > 1), showing a significant positive correlation (p < 0.05). This study indicates that high abundance of Firmicutes is an important guarantee for red deer to adapt to the wild feeding environment, which provides critical implications for the recovery of red deer populations and the protection of endangered ungulates.

Wild ungulate effects on soil fungal diversity in Mediterranean mixed forests

The effect of wild ungulate density on ecosystems varies according to different factors: climate and physiography conditions, forest type, management history, and herbivore identity. In this study, we evaluated the effect of historically high densities of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on the soil fungal communities in Mediterranean ecosystems using 30 paired plots, open on the one hand and exclosure plots on the other one. Plots were established at the end of 2020 in a perimeter-fenced hunting estate of 6600 ha in Toledo, Spain. Three months after plots were established, we analysed fungal communities in 60 soil samples using Illumina 250-bp paired-end sequencing. We estimated changes in total fungal richness and in the richness of trophic groups through Linear Mixed Effects models using fenced/unfenced type and deer habitat use as fixed variables and the location of the plots and the main tree host species as random variables. Fungal composition was analysed using non-metric multidimensional scaling and permutational multivariate ANOVA; edaphic characteristics were incorporated to explain differences. Soil fungal communities were not differentially affected by excluding ungulates for three months. Areas with high deer densities had a richer saprotrophic community and where lowland environments were dominated by the main tree hosts Quercus faginea and Quercus ilex. Arbutus unedo was found in mountain areas where there was less herbivore pressure, a greater richness of ectomycorrhizal and lichenized fungi and soils positively associated to nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic matter levels.

Methodology for verifying/determining the boundaries of Game Management Regions: a case study of the Regional Directorate of the State Forests in Lublin (Poland)

Wildlife management is an integral part of forest management, and game animals should be considered an essential part of the forest ecosystem and agroecosystems in which the flow of energy changed fundamentally during the 20th century due to the use of fertilisers, pesticides, and modern technologies. An approximately four-fold increase in the production of crops brought with it an increase in the number of ungulates in the world. The tasks of foresters and hunters in wildlife management include creating the best suitable living conditions for animals and mitigating conflicts between forest animals and human activities. This necessitates the creation and implementation of modern land units called Game Management Regions (GMRs) in Poland. This concept was defined in the Polish Hunting Law primarily for managing big game populations. The aim of the GMRs is to ensure year-long management of game populations within their respective ranges. Long-term Hunting Management Plans were developed for each GMR, serving as the basis for adopting management directions, and achieving the desired state of the game population as recorded in the multi-year plan (typically spanning ten years). However, experiences and the current situation reveal several weaknesses in the functioning of these divisions, including rapid changes in the environment, particularly the emergence of barriers like highways and new buildings. This research aimed to develop a method for determining or verifying the boundaries of the GMRs based on objective criteria as a case study hosted by the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Lublin. During the conducted analysis we examined data provided by the Regional Directorate of State Forests (RDSF) in Lublin, including information on the current density of red deer (Cervus elaphus), forest cover, forest patch fragmentation, categories of hunting districts, ecological corridors, as well as existing, under-construction and planned highways and expressways. The boundaries of the GMRs were determined by aggregating hunting districts with similar characteristics using GIS software while considering ecological barriers. The analysis results indicated the need to establish 12 divisions instead of 8, with significant deviations from the previous delimitation. The obtained results underscore the necessity of verifying the boundaries of the GMRs nationwide. Keywords: large-scale game management; big game; Game Management Region; hunting plans

Application of the tyraliera counting method to the large-scale inventory of red deer Cervus elaphus in the northern part of Western Pomerania, Poland

Game animal damage in the forests and fields of Central Europe, which dramatically increased at the turn of the 21st century, has undermined the reliability of the size of game population estimates. It is hypothesized that this problem can be attributed to errors in the assessment of animal density. This study conducted game inventories in a region characterized by a large ungulate population using a count method with drivers in line formation (direct counts in control plots). The size of the red deer population in the investigated area was estimated using generalized linear models assuming a negative binomial distribution based on the compound distribution (including the zero-inflated model). The mean red deer density in spring 2012 was 21.5 animals/km2 of forest. The number of red deer determined during this study is often higher that hunters indicated in annual game management plans. For the rational management of populations, it is therefore necessary to verify those estimates periodically, e.g. every five years. The statistical analysis of data from tyraliera method counts may show the actual population size during spring. Thus, it can be the basis for adequately planning hunting bags. Adjusting the population density to the carrying environmental capacity should make it possible to reduce the pressure of red deer on forests and agricultural land.

Numerical top‐down effects on red deer (Cervus elaphus) are mainly shaped by humans rather than large carnivores across Europe

Abstract Terrestrial ecosystems are shaped by interacting top‐down and bottom‐up processes, with the magnitude of top‐down control by large carnivores largely depending on environmental productivity. While carnivore‐induced numerical effects on ungulate prey populations have been demonstrated in large, relatively undisturbed ecosystems, whether large carnivores can play a similar role in more human‐dominated systems is a clear knowledge gap. As humans influence both predator and prey in a variety of ways, the ecological impacts of large carnivores can be largely modified. We quantified the interactive effects of human activities and large carnivore presence on red deer (Cervus elaphus) population density and how their impacts interacted and varied with environmental productivity. Data on red deer density were collected based on a literature survey encompassing 492 study sites across 28 European countries. Variation in density across study sites was analysed using a generalized additive model in which productivity, carnivore presence (grey wolf, European lynx, Brown bear), human activities (hunting, intensity of human land‐use activity), site protection status and climatic variables served as predictors. The results showed that a reduction in deer density only occurred when wolf, lynx and bear co‐occurred within the same site. In the absence of large carnivores, red deer density varied along a productivity gradient without a clear pattern. Although a linear relationship with productivity in the presence of all three large carnivore species was found, this was not statistically significant. Moreover, hunting by humans had a stronger effect than the presence of all large carnivores in reducing red deer density and red deer density increased with increasing intensity of human land use, with stronger large carnivore effects (all three carnivore species present) at sites with low human land‐use activities. Synthesis and applications. This study provides evidence for the dominant role played by humans (i.e. hunting, land‐use activities) relative to large carnivores in reducing red deer density across European human‐dominated landscapes. These findings suggest that when we would like large carnivores to exert numeric effects, we should focus on minimizing human impacts to allow the ecological impacts of large carnivores on ecosystem functioning.

Estimating and managing broad risk of chronic wasting disease spillover among cervid species

AbstractThe management of infectious wildlife diseases often involves tackling pathogens that infect multiple host species. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease that can infect most cervid species. CWD was detected in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Norway in 2016. Sympatric populations of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and moose (Alces alces) are at immediate risk. However, the estimation of spillover risk across species and implementation of multispecies management policies are rarely addressed for wildlife. Here, we estimated the broad risk of CWD spillover from reindeer to red deer and moose by quantifying the probability of co‐occurrence based on both (1) population density and (2) habitat niche overlap from GPS data of all three species in Nordfjella, Norway. We describe the practical challenges faced when aiming to reduce the risk of spillover through a marked reduction in the population densities of moose and red deer using recreational hunters. This involves setting the population and harvest aims with uncertain information and how to achieve them. The niche overlap between reindeer and both moose and red deer was low overall but occurred seasonally. Migratory red deer had a moderate niche overlap with the CWD‐infected reindeer population during the calving period, whereas moose had a moderate niche overlap during both calving and winter. Incorporating both habitat overlap and the population densities of the respective species into the quantification of co‐occurrence allowed for more spatially targeted risk maps. An initial aim of a 50% reduction in abundance for the Nordfjella region was set, but only a moderate population decrease of less than 20% from 2016 to 2021 was achieved. Proactive management in the form of marked population reduction is invasive and unpopular when involving species of high societal value, and targeting efforts to zones with a high risk of spillover to limit adverse impacts and achieve wider societal acceptance is important.

Does Wolf Management in Latvia Decrease Livestock Depredation? An Analysis of Available Data

In Latvia, livestock depredation by wolves has increased during the last two decades. Most of the attacks occur in summer and autumn during wolf hunting season. Use of effective preventive measures in Latvia is low, and farmers primarily rely on wolf hunting as a depredation reduction measure. The total numbers of wolf attacks and number of affected sheep per year in regional forest management units were analyzed in relation to the estimated wolf density, extent of culling, and proportion of juveniles, as well as the sheep density and estimated number of wild prey animals. The response variables (number of attacks and affected sheep per year) were modelled using a negative binomial regression, testing the effects of every covariate separately and building models from the significant covariates. The depredation level was related to sheep density and estimated wolf population size. No reducing effect was found for culling, and an even greater depredation rate was expected when the proportion of culled wolves increased. In addition, no significant effect was associated with the other covariates. However, greater numbers of affected sheep were expected at higher red deer density, suggesting increased opportunistic livestock depredation when red deer locally outcompete roe deer, the preferred wolf prey in Latvia.

Spatial variation in red deer density in a transboundary forest ecosystem

Forests in Europe are exposed to increasingly frequent and severe disturbances. The resulting changes in the structure and composition of forests can have profound consequences for the wildlife inhabiting them. Moreover, wildlife populations in Europe are often subjected to differential management regimes as they regularly extend across multiple national and administrative borders. The red deer Cervus elaphus population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem, straddling the Czech-German border, has experienced forest disturbances, primarily caused by windfalls and bark beetle Ips typographus outbreaks during the past decades. To adapt local management strategies to the changing environmental conditions and to coordinate them across the international border, reliable estimates of red deer density and abundance are highly sought-after by policymakers, wildlife managers, and stakeholders. Covering a 1081-km2 study area, we conducted a transnational non-invasive DNA sampling study in 2018 that yielded 1578 genotyped DNA samples from 1120 individual red deer. Using spatial capture-recapture models, we estimated total and jurisdiction-specific abundance of red deer throughout the ecosystem and quantified the role of forest disturbance and differential management strategies in shaping spatial heterogeneity in red deer density. We hypothesised that (a) forest disturbances provide favourable habitat conditions (e.g., forage and cover), and (b) contrasting red deer management regimes in different jurisdictions create a differential risk landscape, ultimately shaping density distributions. Overall, we estimated that 2851 red deer (95% Credible Interval = 2609–3119) resided in the study area during the sampling period, with a relatively even overall sex ratio (1406 females, 95% CI = 1229–1612 and 1445 males, 95% CI = 1288–1626). The average red deer density was higher in Czechia (3.5 km−2, 95% CI = 1.2–12.3) compared to Germany (2 km−2, 95% CI = 0.2–11). The effect of forest disturbances on red deer density was context-dependent. Forest disturbances had a positive effect on red deer density at higher elevations and a negative effect at lower elevations, which could be explained by partial migration and its drivers in this population. Density of red deer was generally higher in management units where hunting is prohibited. In addition, we found that sex ratios differed between administrative units and were more balanced in the non-intervention zones. Our results show that the effect of forest disturbances on wild ungulates is modulated by additional factors, such as elevation and ungulate management practices. Overall density patterns and sex ratios suggested strong gradients in density between administrative units. With climate change increasing the severity and frequency of forest disturbances, population-level monitoring and management are becoming increasingly important, especially for wide-ranging species as both wildlife and global change transcend administrative boundaries.

Impacts of human disturbance on flight response and habitat use of red deer

AbstractMany wild animals perceive humans as predators, and human disturbance, especially in the form of hunting, triggers antipredatory behavior among prey. Yet, knowledge of how game species react to different types of human disturbance and adapt to repeated disturbances is limited. We investigated how disturbance in the form of a solitary human approacher (stalker) impacted behavior (flight response and short‐term habitat use) of 28 GPS‐collared red deer (Cervus elaphus) in two populations with contrasting population densities in Norway. We studied how the behavioral response differed: (1) with season (pre‐hunting vs. hunting); (2) by consecutive approaches within a day; (3) among replicated experiments within the same season; and (4) between two regions with contrasting densities of red deer. The average flight initiation distance (FID) increased by 15% during the hunting season, and consecutive approaches within the same day caused the red deer to move 49% longer distances. Flight initiation distance was longer in the high‐density population, while escape distance was longer in the low‐density population. Red deer moved out of their weekly home range after 52% approaches, and after the onset of hunting season, time spent outside the home range increased by 89%. Red deer preferred denser resting sites after the disturbance and animal sites had shorter sighting distance and higher canopy cover than control plots. Tree density and canopy cover at animal sites increased at the onset of hunting season, from first to second approach within day, and after replicated experiments within season. Our results suggest that red deer preferred dense resting sites, especially in the hunting season. However, these animal sites had the same amount of the favorable forage plant bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), indicating no clear food–cover trade‐off in selection of habitat. Our study showed that onset of hunting initiates stronger fear responses in red deer, which may in turn affect red deer distribution and harvesting efficiency.

Nutrient balancing or spring flush – What determines spruce bark stripping level by red deer?

The distribution and population density of red deer (Cervus elaphus) are increasing in several regions of Europe. The deer may cause severe damage in commercial forestry and agriculture. Bark stripping is the main problem in forests, especially on Norway spruce (Picea abies), and is thought to mostly occur during winter when other forage is scarce. It has been suggested that an imbalance in the nutrient intake, and especially a diet including high amounts of easily-digestible macronutrients, such as agricultural crops, can lead to an increased urge to consume bark. Feeding on brassicas, for example rapeseed (Brassica napus) might have this effect. The aim with this study was to investigate the relationship between intake of rapeseed and bark stripping on Norway spruce by red deer during early spring. We did this by a controlled feeding experiment with four groups of captive red deer in southern Sweden. All groups were given spruce logs every week, while only two groups had access to freshly harvested rapeseed plants. In addition, influence of air temperature and forage nutritional composition was taken into account. Our results show that red deer bark stripping can be considerable not only during winter but also during spring green-up. We found no significant influence of rapeseed on bark stripping performed by the deer. However, at a threshold temperature, deer suddenly started to ingest large amounts of bark biomass, coinciding with a significant change in the bark’s concentration of starch. We suggest that the lack of effect of rapeseed feeding can partly be explained by overshadowing effects caused by such seasonal changes of bark characteristics, and partly by the fact that the rapeseed plants in our study contained lower than expected concentrations of easily-digestible macronutrients (apart from protein). We conclude that the risk of damage on spruce can be especially high during certain periods, something that is important to consider when mitigating bark stripping. However, several interactive effects are involved and must be considered in order to more efficiently mitigate damage.

Toward a Beech-Dominated Alternative Stable State in Dinaric Mixed Montane Forests: A Long-Term Study of the Pecka Old-Growth Forest

In the last century, a synchronous beech expansion has been observed for many mixed mountain forests in southeastern Europe. This change is associated with the interaction of various disturbances. We analyzed structural changes in the Pecka old-growth forest in Slovenia during the last century, using several inventories of the tree layer, regeneration, and site factors. Throughout the observation period, the density of silver fir in the regeneration layer and in the overstory steadily decreased. In 1893, silver fir accounted for about 60% of the growing stock, whereas in 2013 it accounted for less than 13%. This is likely because of silver fir’s decline in the canopy layer due to air pollution, successive windthrows, and overbrowsing. However, climate change may also have played an important role, as silver fir also declined in southeastern European old-growth forests where air pollution was less pronounced and ungulate densities were low. A gradual decline of silver fir in the overstory resulted in a decrease of overall tree density to 231 trees ha–1, while growing stock remained relatively high at 712 m3 ha–1. Median diffuse light at 1.3 m was 3.7% and regeneration density was 19,954 ha–1. Beech was dominant (94%), followed by silver fir (4%), and sycamore maple (2%). No silver fir seedlings larger than 0.2 m were recorded. Silver fir, sycamore maple, and beech regeneration showed 87, 76, and 45% browsing damage, respectively. Regression models indicated some evidence of niche partitioning between silver fir and beech. However, many processes may be masked by the silver fir’s avoidance strategy. Given current red deer densities, climate change, and existing forest structure, the Pecka old-growth forest will likely reach an alternative stable state dominated by beech in a few decades. This calls for immediate reduction of ungulate populations. Despite the interaction of multiple disturbances, the Pecka old-growth forest has maintained a relatively high overall growing stock, a favorable microclimate, and succession pathway with shade-tolerant beech. This indicates the intrinsic resilience of natural forests. The mechanisms discussed here can be applied to the future governance of old-growth and managed montane mixed forests.

Deer Behavior Affects Density Estimates With Camera Traps, but Is Outweighed by Spatial Variability

Density is a key trait of populations and an essential parameter in ecological research, wildlife conservation and management. Several models have been developed to estimate population density based on camera trapping data, including the random encounter model (REM) and camera trap distance sampling (CTDS). Both models need to account for variation in animal behavior that depends, for example, on the species and sex of the animals along with temporally varying environmental factors. We examined whether the density estimates of REM and CTDS can be improved for Europe’s most numerous deer species, by adjusting the behavior-related model parameters per species and accounting for differences in movement speeds between sexes, seasons, and years. Our results showed that bias through inadequate consideration of animal behavior was exceeded by the uncertainty of the density estimates, which was mainly influenced by variation in the number of independent observations between camera trap locations. The neglection of seasonal and annual differences in movement speed estimates for REM overestimated densities of red deer in autumn and spring by ca. 14%. This GPS telemetry-derived parameter was found to be most problematic for roe deer females in summer and spring when movement behavior was characterized by small-scale displacements relative to the intervals of the GPS fixes. In CTDS, density estimates of red deer improved foremost through the consideration of behavioral reactions to the camera traps (avoiding bias of max. 19%), while species-specific delays between photos had a larger effect for roe deer. In general, the applicability of both REM and CTDS would profit profoundly from improvements in their precision along with the reduction in bias achieved by exploiting the available information on animal behavior in the camera trap data.

Density-related effect of red deer browsing on palatable and unpalatable tree species and forest regeneration dynamics

Large herbivores play a key role in terrestrial ecosystems, and their populations alter the plant composition in many ecosystems. One example is deer, whose populations in the Northern Hemisphere have increased over the last decades. This has resulted in increased browsing pressure on saplings and, as a consequence, has hampered forest regeneration in some areas. Such herbivore-induced changes in the regeneration of forest stands have changed their composition and biodiversity. Although there is an established link between the deer population density and the level of damage caused by browsing, the question remains open: What is the effect of increasing deer density over years on the regeneration of palatable and less browsing-resistant tree species? In this study, we investigated the relationships between the regeneration dynamics of five tree species (European beech Fagus sylvatica, silver fir Abies alba, sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus, hornbeam Carpinus betulus, and oak Quercus spp.) and browsing pressure in two years with low and high red deer (Cervus elaphus) density and at similar roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) density. We set up experimental plots in Roztocze National Park (central-eastern Poland), a protected area where natural predators of deer are constantly present. In addition to deer density, we analysed parameters that may affect browsing intensity: height of saplings, forage availability (sapling density), sapling diversity and light intensity (canopy openness). We found that increasing red deer density significantly increased browsing on all tree species, with saplings taller than 50 cm being under the strongest pressure. Moreover, higher deer density altered deer forage selection – it increased their selection for unpalatable European beech and decreased for highly preferred sycamore. Additionally, more species-diverse patches and closed canopy attracted deer and increased the probability of browsing on saplings. Contrary to our predictions, sapling density decreased browsing intensity. The study confirms that high ungulate density has significant effects on tree recruitment and may alter tree species composition of the forest stand. We provide clear evidence that deer herbivory plays a crucial role in tree regeneration in top-down processes in natural ecosystems.

There is only one winner: The negative impact of red deer density on roe deer numbers and distribution in the Słowiński National Park and its vicinity.

Red and roe deer are the most numerous cervids in Europe, and they occur in sympatry in most regions. Roe deer were considered to be an inferior competitor in studies in which they co‐occurred with fallow deer or muntjac. Despite the remarkable overlap of their ranges, there are few studies on the competition between the red and roe deer. Since interspecific interactions among ungulates are often related to their mutual densities, the current study focused on the effects of high red deer density on the roe deer numbers and spatial distribution in the unhunted Słowiński National Park (SNP) in northern Poland and forest districts open to hunting bordering the park. Using fecal pellet group counts, it was found that in the forest districts (where red deer densities were 2–3 times lower than in the SNP), roe deer densities were significantly higher than in the park. The red‐to‐roe deer density ratio was 10.8 and 2.7, in the SNP and the surrounding forest districts, respectively. Moreover, in the SNP, the roe deer distribution was negatively affected by the red deer habitat use, while in the hunting areas, such an effect was not recorded. The negative influence of the red deer on the roe deer population in the park was most probably due to the red deer impact on food availability. The biomass of the plant groups forming the staple food of the roe deer (Rubus spp., forbs, dwarf shrubs) was significantly higher in the fenced plots than in the unfenced ones. Lack of hunting in the protected areas may benefit only some species in ungulate assemblages which, in turn, may contradict one of their objectives—to maintain viable and ecologically functional populations.

Estimating red deer (Cervus elaphus) population size based on non-invasive genetic sampling

Some deer species are of conservation concern; others are officially managed as a food source or for their trophies, whereas in many regions, deer are regarded as overabundant or even as a nuisance causing damages. Regardless of local management issues, in most cases, reliable data on deer population sizes and sex ratios are lacking. Non-invasive genetic approaches are promising tools for the estimation of population size and structure. We developed and tested a non-invasive genetic approach for red deer (Cervus elaphus) population size and density estimation based on faeces collected from three free-ranging red deer populations in south-western Germany. Altogether, we genotyped 2762 faecal samples, representing 1431 different individuals. We estimated population density for both sexes separately using two different approaches: spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) approach and a single-session urn model (CAPWIRE). The estimated densities of both approaches were similar for all three study areas, ranging between total densities of 3.3 (2.5–4.4) and 8.5 (6.4–11.3) red deer/km2. The estimated sex ratios differed significantly between the studied populations (ranging between 1:1.1 and 1:1.7), resulting in considerable consequences for management. In further research, the issues of population closure and approximation of the effectively sampled area for density estimation should be addressed. The presented approach can serve as a valuable tool for the management of deer populations, and to our knowledge, it represents the only sex-specific approach for estimation of red deer population size and density.

Long term surveillance reveals nematode Elaphostrongylus cervi as a practical indicator of red deer management

Measures of performance in wild ungulates must consider density dependent and stochastic factors such as parasitic rates (as natural enemies in intimae relation with hosts) along with the impact of population management. In order to standardize parasite counts to be useful ecological indicators, it is essential to test host and parasite responses to the abovementioned. In the Iberian Peninsula, the parasitic nematode Elaphostrongylus cervi and its host the red deer (Cervus elaphus) provide an excellent practical scenario to illustrate how parasitic rates should be interpreted under different management contexts. Our study focuses on two distinct management scenarios, one deer population (LM) with supplemental feeding and one population (QM) with almost no human intervention, aside from hunting. We aim to assess how management (supplemental feeding) modulates the relationships of density dependent, stochastic and individual factors, and E. cervi faecal larvae counts in the red deer, so as with other physiological traits (body condition and spleen weight - as a proxy to immunological status). Overall, we have shown the decisive role that density and precipitation can have in a Mediterranean environment, with different trends in the two studied areas (e.g. negative correlation between E. cervi and red deer density in supplemented population, in opposition to un-supplemented). The crucial role that precipitation combined with density can have on deer dynamics, along with the artificial feeding as buffer of some traits, reinforces the need for an adaptive management, and the demand to manage each population considering the surrounding environment. Management strategies selected in each site can establish populations dynamics and health and should be closely monitored in a long-term context, as it occurs in our study.

Az amerikai májmétely (Fascioloides magna) expanziója Délnyugat-Magyarországon – Előzetes közlemény

Európában a Fascioloides magna több endémiás területen fordul elő. A féreg a különböző élőhelyek között a végleges gazdák mozgásával, a köztigazdák széthurcolásával, illetve állatszállítások útján terjed. A tanulmányban a szerzők öt, Belső-Somogyban elejtett gímszarvas esetfeldolgozásával mutatják be a F. magna fertőzöttség terjedését. A parazitológiai vizsgálatok során négy állatban, eltérő intenzitással fordult elő a faj, egy esetben csak a férgek májban történő vándorlásának jellegzetes nyomait figyelték meg. A nagy amerikai májmétely 2018-ban megismert legészakibb belső-somogyi előfordulása és a jelenlegi előfordulások között a távolságok 21,0-37,8 km közé estek. Az eredmények a F. magna további dél-dunántúli terjedését támasztják alá.

Deer density drives habitat use of establishing wolves in the Western European Alps

Abstract The return of top carnivores to their historical range triggers conflicts with the interests of different stakeholder groups. Anticipating such conflicts is key to appropriate conservation management, which calls for reliable spatial predictions of future carnivore occurrence. Previous models have assessed general habitat suitability for wolves, but the factors driving the settlement of dispersing individuals remain ill‐understood. In particular, little attention has been paid to the role of prey availability in the recolonization process. High spatial resolution and area‐wide relative densities of the wolf's main ungulate prey species (red deer, roe deer and chamois) were assessed from snow‐track surveys and modelled along with wolf presence data and other environmental descriptors to identify the main drivers of habitat selection of re‐establishing wolves in the Western European Alps. Prey species abundance was estimated from the minimum number of individuals recorded from snow‐tracks along two hundred and eighteen 1‐km transects surveyed twice a year during four successive winters (2012/2013–2015/2016). Abundance estimates per transect, corrected for species‐specific detection probabilities and averaged across winters, were used to model area‐wide relative prey density and biomass. Confirmed wolf observations during the same four winters were used to develop a spatially explicit habitat selection model for establishing wolves, based on our estimates of prey supply and other environmental descriptors of topography, land‐use and climate. Detection‐corrected ungulate prey abundances and modelled relative densities varied considerably in space (0–2.8, 1.3–4.5 and 0–6.3 per 50 ha in red deer, roe deer and chamois respectively; 1.3–11.65 pooled), while total predicted prey biomass ranged from 23 to 304 kg per 50 ha. Red deer density was the most important factor explaining wolf occurrence (31% contribution), followed by roe deer density (22%), winter precipitation (19%) and presence of game reserves (16%), showing that food supply, especially red deer as the most profitable prey in the Western Alps, was the main driver of winter habitat selection during the settlement phase. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate the crucial importance of including accurate, fine‐grained information about prey supply for predicting recolonization patterns of carnivores and thus anticipating areas with potential human–wildlife conflicts where preventive measures should be prioritized.

Impact of conservation and hunting on big game species: comparison of the genetic diversity of the red deer population groups from a national park and neighboring hunting areas in northern Poland

The conservation of biodiversity and rational use of biological resources should be conducted with a view to population genetics. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare the genetic diversity of highly distributed red deer groups from Słowiński National Park (NP) and hunting areas (HA) in northern Poland using 10 dinucleotide microsatellites. In 254 animals, 112 alleles were observed with a high allelic number (NA = 7–15). The NP and HA groups showed high mean heterozygosity (Ho = 0.548 ± 0.063–0.613 ± 0.061) compared to other deer populations in Europe, although a slight decrease in heterozygosity and an increase in inbreeding was identified in NP, compared to HA. A high level of intra-group and a low level of inter-group genetic differentiation was found, which was supported by a high level of gene flow between NP and HA. Structure analysis revealed two genetic clusters (NP and HA) within the population. The HA cluster was distinguished by numerous private alleles, although the NP cluster was distinguished by a high frequency of two private alleles. These study results show that unhunted conservation areas may affect red deer density without increasing genetic diversity whereas hunting does not seem to have a negative impact on deer genetic diversity. This study affirms the anthropogenic impact on the red deer groups in both NP and HA. Ongoing monitoring of the red deer population with an effective sampling strategy is recommended.