Dense Core Mass Function Research Articles

A DENSITY DEPENDENCE FOR PROTOSTELLAR LUMINOSITY IN CLASS I SOURCES: COLLABORATIVE ACCRETION

Class I protostars in three high-mass star-forming regions are found to have correlations among the local projected density of other Class I protostars, the summed flux from these other protostars, and the protostellar luminosity in the WISE 22 micron band. Brighter Class I sources form in higher-density and higher-flux regions, while low luminosity sources form anywhere. These correlations depend slightly on the number of neighbors considered (from 2 to 20) and could include a size-of-sample effect from the initial mass function (i.e., larger numbers include rarer and more massive stars). Luminosities seem to vary by neighborhood with nearby protostars having values proportional to each other and higher density regions having higher values. If Class I luminosity is partially related to the accretion rate, then this luminosity correlation is consistent with the competitive accretion model, although it is more collaborative than competitive. The correlation is also consistent with primordial mass segregation, and could explain why the stellar initial mass function resembles the dense core mass function even when cores form multiple stars.

MASS DISTRIBUTIONS OF STARS AND CORES IN YOUNG GROUPS AND CLUSTERS

We investigate the relation of the stellar initial mass function (IMF) and the dense core mass function (CMF), using stellar masses and positions in 14 well-studied young groups. Initial column density maps are computed by replacing each star with a model initial core having the same star formation efficiency (SFE). For each group the SFE, core model, and observational resolution are varied to produce a realistic range of initial maps. A clumpfinding algorithm parses each initial map into derived cores, derived core masses, and a derived CMF. The main result is that projected blending of initial cores causes derived cores to be too few and too massive. The number of derived cores is fewer than the number of initial cores by a mean factor 1.4 in sparse groups and 5 in crowded groups. The mass at the peak of the derived CMF exceeds the mass at the peak of the initial CMF by a mean factor 1.0 in sparse groups and 12.1 in crowded groups. These results imply that in crowded young groups and clusters, the mass distribution of observed cores may not reliably predict the mass distribution of protostars which will form in those cores.

STAR FORMATION IN THE TAURUS FILAMENT L 1495: FROM DENSE CORES TO STARS

We present a study of dense structures in the L 1495 filament in the Taurus Molecular Cloud and examine its star-forming properties. In particular, we construct a dust extinction map of the filament using deep near-infrared observations, exposing its small-scale structure in unprecedented detail. The filament shows highly fragmented substructures and a high mass-per-length value of Mline = 17 M☉ pc−1, reflecting star-forming potential in all parts of it. However, a part of the filament, namely B 211, is remarkably devoid of young stellar objects. We argue that in this region the initial filament collapse and fragmentation is still taking place and star formation is yet to occur. In the star-forming part of the filament, we identify 39 cores with masses from 0.4 to 10 M☉ and preferred separations in agreement with the local Jeans length. Most of these cores exceed the Bonnor–Ebert critical mass, and are therefore likely to collapse and form stars. The dense core mass function follows a power law with exponent Γ = 1.2 ± 0.2, a form commonly observed in star-forming regions.

The IMF of stellar clusters: effects of accretion and feedback

(abridged) We develop a model which describes the coevolution of the mass function of dense cores and of the IMF in a protocluster clump. In the model, cores injected in the clump evolve under the effect of gas accretion. Accretion onto the cores follows a time-dependent accretion rate that describes accretion in a turbulent medium. Once the accretion timescales of cores exceed their contraction timescales, they are turned into stars. We include the effect of feedback by the newly formed massive stars through their stellar winds. A fraction of the wind's energy is assumed to counter gravity and disperse the gas from the protocluster and as a consequence, quench further star formation. The latter effect sets the final IMF of the cluster. We apply our model to a clump that is expected to resemble the progenitor clump of the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC). Our model is able to reproduce both the shape and normalization of the ONC's IMF and the mass function of dense cores in Orion. The complex features of the ONC's IMF,i.e., a shallow slope in the mass range ~0.3-2.5 Msol,a steeper slope in the mass range ~2.5-12 Msol, and a nearly flat tail at the high mass end are reproduced. The model predicts a 'rapid' star formation process with an age spread for the stars of 2.3 10^5 yr which is consistent with the fact that 80% of the ONC's stars have ages of <=0.3 Myr. The model predicts a primordial mass segregation with the most massive stars being born in the region between 2-4 times the core radius of the cluster. In parallel, the model also reproduces, simultaneously, the mass function of dense cores in Orion. We study the effects of varying the model parameters on the resulting IMF and show that the IMF of stellar clusters is expected to show significant variations, provided variations in the clumps and cores properties exist.

The thermodynamics of molecular cloud fragmentation

Properties of candidate stars, forming out of molecular clouds, depend on the ambient conditions of the parent cloud. We present a series of 2D and 3D simulations of fragmentation of molecular clouds in starburst regions as well as clouds under conditions in dwarf galaxies, leading to the formation of protostellar cores. We explore in particular the metallicity dependence of molecular cloud fragmentation and the possible variations in the dense core mass function, as the expression of a multi-phase ISM, due to dynamic and thermodynamic effects in starburst and metal-poor environments. To study the level of fragmentation during the collapse, the adaptive mesh refinement code FLASH is used. With this code, including self-gravity, thermal balance, turbulence and shocks, collapse is simulated with four different metallicity dependent cooling functions. Turbulent and rotational energies are considered as well. During the simulations, number densities of 10^8-10^9 cm^-3 are reached. The influences of dust and cosmic ray heating are investigated and a comparison to isothermal cases is made. The presented results indicate that fragmentation increases with metallicity, while cosmic ray and gas-grain collisional heating counteract this. We also find that modest rotation and turbulence can impact the cloud evolution as far as fragmentation is concerned. In this light, we conclude that radiative feedback, in starburst regions, will inhibit fragmentation, while low-metallicity dwarfs also should enjoy a star formation mode in which fragmentation is suppressed.

Discerning the Form of the Dense Core Mass Function

ABSTRACTWe investigate the ability to discern between lognormal and power-law forms for the observed mass function of dense cores in star-forming regions. After testing our fitting, goodness-of-fit, and model selection procedures on simulated data, we apply our analysis to 14 data sets from the literature. Whether the core mass function has a power-law tail or whether it follows a pure lognormal form cannot be distinguished from current data. From our simulations it is estimated that data sets from uniform surveys containing more than ≈500 cores with a completeness limit below the peak of the mass distribution are needed to definitively discern between these two functional forms. We also conclude that the width of the core mass function may be more reliably estimated than the power-law index of the high mass tail and that the width may also be a more useful parameter in comparing with the stellar initial mass function to deduce the statistical evolution of dense cores into stars.

The mass function of dense molecular cores and the origin of the IMF

Context: Stars form in the cold dense cores of interstellar molecular clouds and the detailed knowledge of the spectrum of masses of such cores is clearly a key for the understanding of the origin of the IMF. To date, observations have presented somewhat contradictory evidence relating to this issue. Aims: In this paper we propose to derive the mass function of a complete sample of dense molecular cores in a single cloud employing a robust method that uses uses extinction of background starlight to measure core masses and enables the reliable extension of such measurements to lower masses than previously possible. Methods: We use a map of near-infrared extinction in the nearby Pipe dark cloud to identify the population of dense cores in the cloud and measure their masses. Results: We identify 159 dense cores and construct the mass function for this population. We present the first robust evidence for a departure from a single power-law form in the mass function of a population of cores and find that this mass function is surprisingly similar in shape to the stellar IMF but scaled to a higher mass by a factor of about 3. This suggests that the distribution of stellar birth masses (IMF) is the direct product of the dense core mass function and a uniform star formation efficiency of 30%+/-10%, and that the stellar IMF may already be fixed during or before the earliest stages of core evolution. These results are consistent with previous dust continuum studies which suggested that the IMF directly originates from the core mass function. The typical density of ~10^4/cm^3 measured for the dense cores in this cloud suggests that the mass scale that characterizes the dense core mass function may be the result of a simple process of thermal (Jeans) fragmentation.

Molecular clouds in galaxies as seen from NIR extinction studies

AbstractNear infrared dust extinction mapping is opening a new window on molecular cloud research. Applying a straightforward technique to near infrared large scale data of nearby molecular complexes one can easily construct density maps with dynamic ranges in column density covering, 3σ~ 0.5 &lt; AV&lt; 50 mag or 1021&lt;N&lt;1023 cm−2. These maps are unique in capturing the low column density distribution of gas in molecular cloud complexes, where most of the mass resides, and at the same time allow the identification of dense cores (n~104cm−3) which are the precursors of stars. For example, the application of this technique to the nearby Pipe Nebula complex revealed the presence of 159 dense cores (the largest sample of such object in one single complex) whose mass spectrum presents the first robust evidence for a departure from a single power-law. The form of this mass function is surprisingly similar in shape to the stellar IMF but scaled to a higher mass by a factor of about 3. This suggests that the distribution of stellar birth masses (IMF) is the direct product of the dense core mass function and a uniform star formation efficiency of 30%±10%, and that the stellar IMF may already be fixed during or before the earliest stages of core evolution. We are now extending this technique to extra-galactic mapping of Giant molecular Clouds (GMCs), and although a much less straightforward task, preliminary results indicate that the GMC mass spectrum in M83 and Centaurus A is a power-law characterized by α~−2 unlike CO results which suggest α~−1.