Demobilization And Reintegration Processes Research Articles

A self-fulfilling prophecy? Constructions of youth-as-troublemakers in UN DDR processes

Youth as a category that informs international interventions in conflict-affected settings has gained currency in the past decade. This article traces the rising rhetoric of youth in UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) discourse and demonstrates how changes in its dominant representations have implications beyond the matter of semantics. Drawing on post-structuralist traditions, the article highlights how the DDR discourse delineates problems through particular framings that call forth certain solutions, which in turn reinforce the very (mis)understandings that underlie the interventions. A case study from the Central African Republic illustrates how the hegemonic representation of youth-as-troublemakers in UN documents, together with a compelling narrative that naturalized the link between youth, unemployment and violence, made possible and conferred legitimacy to the proliferation of projects with an overwhelming economic focus. The article discusses how the resource landscape, such as opportunities to unlock earmarked funding, incentivizes the reproduction of certain constructions of youth that align with today’s policy panic around violent extremism. In so doing, it puts into question the instrumental approach towards discourse by pointing to surprising ways in which discourses become appropriated by both international peacebuilders and the ‘subjects’ of these interventions.

Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration in Colombia: Lost human rights opportunities for ex-combatants with disabilities

This article examines whether and how the circumstances of Colombian ex-combatants with disabilities were recognized in the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes in the period following the adoption of the 2016 peace agreement. Our results suggest severe procedural and substantive shortcomings during the drafting of the peace agreement and the implementation of the DDR processes that exacerbated the exclusion of ex-combatants with disabilities from available opportunities for their social, economic, and political reintegration. We conclude that a better understanding of the disabling impact of conflict and the experiences of impairment and disability could have mitigated such neglect.

Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration of Armed Groups in Post-war Sri Lanka: A Study based on Koralaipattu South Divisional Secretariat Division in Eastern Sri Lanka

This article generally focuses on the process of Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) which are essential to restore sustainable peace in the post-war scenario. The DDR is one of the significant aspects of the process of post-war peacebuilding. In most of the cases, this process has implemented with the assistance of foreign governments and international or regional institutions. However, the circumstances under which the Government of Sri Lanka happened to take over the sole responsibility for implementing the DDR process have raised serious concerns both at the local and international level. Hence, this article attempts to conduct a detailed inquiry of the DDR process implemented in Sri Lanka after the end of the civil war. This article followed a descriptive method of investigation. The findings of the study show that the DDR process was not fully implemented in a broad manner in the Sri Lankan context, but only served as a continuation of the military victory over the LTTE. In particular, not much attention was paid to disarming and demobilizing the armed groups, and only the so-called DDR process took place without international assistance and supervision.

Concealing former identity to be accepted after the demobilization process in Colombia: A real reintegration in a post conflict scenario?

Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) processes underlie the issue of the adaptation of former combatants into civilian life, as well as their acceptance by the civilian population. In an ongoing conflict scenario like Colombia’s, some factors such as civilian hostility and discrimination can lead former combatants to opt for defensive strategies such as concealing their former identity or taking up arms again. Until 2016, 58’000 combatants tried to rebuild their lives in civil society under a process where concealing their former combatant identity was necessary for reintegration. This paper contributes with original data on concealing identities in DDR processes, from a field study conducted in 2014 in Colombia with former members of guerrillas’ group (FARC and ELN) and paramilitaries’ group (AUC) in four different regions in the country (N = 201). We study the factors that determine concealing the former combatant identity and its effects on reintegration. The voluntary demobilization and the pride of having belonged to an armed group decrease the frequency of concealing the former identity. Otherwise, a hostile civilian community’s reception increases the level of concealing. Contrary to literature on intragroup relations and on social reintegration and reconciliation, our results reveal that concealing one’s past seems to indirectly permit a better integration, with a higher identification with civilian life. Results are discussed with reference to social identity theory, reintegration, and reconciliation literature, regarding the limits of reintegration processes in an ongoing conflict scenario.

Gender dimensions of DDR – beyond victimization and dehumanization: tracking the thematic

ABSTRACT In much of the early literature on gender dimensions of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes – from the 1980s and 1990s – the focus was on women as victims in conflict and DDR processes. This article reviews the literature on gender dimensions of DDR processes, exploring its many different topics – such as discussions of the definition of combatants, the political economy of DDR processes, group identity, cultural contexts, and masculinity – while focusing the discussion on the representation of female and male combatants of armed groups along the victim–actor axis. It furthermore analyzes the consequences of these representations for the way in which DDR processes are structured, and for who is allowed to participate in them. Finally, the article questions the push toward normalization in DDR processes and the neglect of progressive changes in gender relations within armed groups during war.

Leaving war and the closet? Exploring the varied experiences of LGBT ex-combatants in Colombia

Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) programmes have been acknowledged as a crucial part of peacebuilding initiatives and the importance of ensuring that they are gender responsive has been increasingly recognized by the international community. However, policy guidance has failed to include ex-combatants who do not conform to a narrow, binary understandingof gender and make no reference to sexual and gender minorities. Similarly, LGBT excombatants have been overlooked by scholars and very little is known of their experiences as they transition to civilian life. This article explores the varied experiences of LGBT ex-combatants who have been part of three different armed groups in Colombia. Using semi-structured interviews with ex-combatantsfrom the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the 19th of April Movement (M-19) and the United Self-Defenders of Colombia (AUC), this article shows how DDR processes may generate significant and rapid transformations for sexual and gender minorities. The article also outlines particular challenges faced by LGBT ex-combatants. In conclusion, I argue that policy makers and researchers should incorporate a gender perspective in DDR that moves beyond a narrow, binary understanding of gender in order to respond to the needs, ensure the participation, and protect the rights of LGBT ex-combatants.

Network structure of insurgent groups and the success of DDR processes in Colombia

ABSTRACTWe argue that organizational structure of insurgent organizations influences the prospects for success in a disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration process (DDR). In essence, we argue that more cohesive, tighter networks have higher levels of supervision and control on its military units and increase the probability of successful DDR processes. In order to evaluate our hypotheses, we use the theory of networks to map and characterize the network structure of the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Our results suggest that armed military units grouped in smaller and more isolated components on the network remilitarize with higher probability with respect to other units on the network. Also, we find that military units with high degree of centrality on the network play an important role for the risk of conflict recurrence and success in a DDR process.

DDR Y COMISIONES DE VERDAD, LÍMITES Y PUNTOS DE ENCUENTRO: EVIDENCIA DESDE LOS CASOS DE NAMIBIA, EL CONGO, INDONESIA Y COLOMBIA

El fin de la Guerra Fría permitió posicionar en el escenario mundial, la necesidad de solucionar los conflictos internos en distintos continentes. En consecuencia, surgieron las primeras experiencias de Desarme, Desmovilización y Reintegración (DDR) basándose en la estabilización de los países en términos de seguridad, que en algunos casos, tuvieron en cuenta aspectos como el derecho de las víctimas a la verdad. Sin embargo, en los últimos años ha emergido una preocupación frente a la articulación de procesos de DDR y comisiones de la verdad, pues la experiencia ha demostrado gran dificultad para coordinar el desarrollo y objetivos de dichos procesos. Así pues, esta investigación realiza un análisis comparativo enfocado en casos no emblemáticos de comisiones de verdad, pero sí de DDR, como los son Namibia, el Congo, Indonesia y Colombia, con el fin de analizar el impacto de los procesos robustos de Desarme, Desmovilización y Reintegración en procesos de comisiones de verdad.

Social Capital Made Explicit: The Role of Norms, Networks, and Trust in Reintegrating Ex-combatants and Peacebuilding in Liberia

ABSTRACTDisarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) is fundamental in remaking post-war relationships. This article draws on two sets of field research data from Liberia to highlight the role of social capital in shaping DDR outcomes. The way reintegration is communicated and implemented can have a direct impact on all three elements of social capital: promoting norms, developing social networks, and building (or undermining) relationships and trust. These components of social capital are directly influenced by reintegration, while also feeding back into how reintegration progresses and is experienced. More specifically, new and existing networks used by ex-combatants as a way to navigate the post-war environment are an important element of social capital, as it goes through all kinds of distortions and transformations. These networks are important for the survival strategies at work, especially when there are shortcomings in the DDR process. Finally, a further layer is suggested: that social capital is a factor mediating how reintegration contributes (or not) to peacebuilding as a whole.

The gendered construction of reparations: an exploration of women’s exclusion from the Niger Delta reintegration processes

AbstractThe Niger Delta is located in the South-south region of Nigeria. Oil exploration and exploitation by the multinational oil companies led to environmental degradation. The agitations among the inhabitants for environmental protection led to a protracted conflict between the Nigerian security forces and the militant groups in the region. Amnesty, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) were adopted in the region to resolve the conflict by the government. The Niger Delta post-conflict DDR processes were gendered: exclusion of women from the peace processes was a major concern for peacebuilding actors and academics in the region. Men were significantly favoured in the DDR peacebuilding processes because they belonged to militant groups. The roles played by women in the conflict were not however recognised; these included roles in demonstrations, strikes, campaigns, lobbies, and as carers, nurses and cooks. Women have therefore sought redress in the peacebuilding processes. This study aims to identify roles played by men and women in the Niger Delta conflict. It examines methods of conflict resolution adopted in the region and also investigates the reason why women were largely excluded from the DDR processes. Recognition Theory is used in this study to examine the institutionalised norms that make gender inclusion in the Niger Delta peacebuilding processes problematic. Recognition theory considers equal treatment to be an important part of a just society, while distributive justice theorists believe that economic goods and wealth must be shared equally. This study was carried out in the Gbaramatu Kingdom, Niger Delta region, Nigeria, in three selected communities: Okerenkoko; Egwa; and Oporoza. A qualitative method involving in-depth interviews was used to collect data from 24 participants. I report that many men and women participated in the conflict but a small number of women (0.6%) were included in the DDR peacebuilding processes. I find that men and women demand that reparations should be considered in addition to the reintegration process that has been adopted in the Niger Delta. Furthermore, I find that apart from patriarchal culture, DDR operational norms only focus on security and not on human rights. I conclude that men’s and women’s rights could be recognized through the combination of DDR and reparations rights in the Niger Delta peacebuilding processes. This article is published as part of a collection on gender studies.

Destructive entrepreneurship and the security context

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to deliver insight from the concept of destructive entrepreneurship to program design considerations in conflict regions. Design/methodology/approach – This paper discusses and connects destructive entrepreneurship – an important yet largely unexplored question in the entrepreneurship literature – with security policy, related to evolving directions in the counterinsurgency literature and the traditional disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) literature. Findings – Counterinsurgency is increasingly the approach used by international and domestic policymakers when dealing with regional conflict, and DDR processes have been used for decades to transition former combatants into civilian life. Three broad considerations are particularly salient (timing/sequencing/phasing, benefits and beneficiaries, and measurement) for DDR programs in the counterinsurgency context. Practical implications – An incentives-based approach to understanding destructive entrepreneurship can provide useful insights for these two approaches and in particular, how they can be used together. Originality/value – This paper expands the current scope of understanding of destructive entrepreneurship to the previously unconnected security policy contexts related to counterinsurgency and DDR.

<em>Limitations of Individualistic Peacebuilding in Postwar Sierra Leone</em>

This paper focuses on two postwar initiatives in Sierra Leone: the Disarmament, Demobilization, and Rein-tegration (DDR) process and the transitional justice process through the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC). The paper examines both processes and points to some of their limitations. It pays special attention to the problems of defining and identifying “perpetrators” and “victims” and the lack of gender and disability mainstreaming in both the DDR and TRC processes. The paper argues that in order for these processes to be more successful at facilitating peacebuilding in postwar Sierra Leone, a more holistic communal bottom-up policy approach is needed.

Community Reintegration in Colombia: A Project for Relatives of Former Combatants and the Receiving Community

This paper explores how reintegration strategies within disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes have evolved and tries to determine the reasons why, from an empirical point of view, a community reintegration approach is more likely to promote reconciliation in a war-torn society. After reviewing the current literature on DDR, its relation to social capital and reconciliation, and the conceptualization of community reintegration, the paper addresses the government-led DDR process in Colombia, thoroughly analyzing the JICA, “Project for the Support of Entrepreneurship and Employment for the Households of Demobilized Ex-Combatants and the Recipient Communities,” initiated in 2008. Personal and social profiles of the participants of the project, as well as individual surveys on specific topics, were used in the assessment. Two major findings could be identified from the empirical analysis of the project. On the one hand, the community reintegration approach encourages economic reintegration of a complete household and not only of one individual. On the other hand, such an approach supports the creation, and not only the reconstruction, of a new social capital where former combatants and their families may reintegrate into. In many occasions, ex-combatants have to settle down in places different from their hometowns and away from family and friends, making it impossible to reconstruct a social network that did not exist before. Economic reintegration of entire households and facilitating the existence of a strong social capital are elements that may indeed promote reconciliation in post-conflict situations.

Politically Enfranchising the Non-political: Safeguarding Peace through Civic Education and Inclusion? The Civil Defence Forces in Sierra Leone

This article considers the nature of the Civil Defence Forces (CDF) in Sierra Leone as a fighting force, and some of the challenges they faced for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR), as well as the challenges posed by a group like the CDF to the DDR process. It considers some initiatives to educate the fighters about democracy, reconciliation and their associated responsibilities that began already during the civil war, as well as mechanisms that were created for the peaceful resolution of conflict by the CDF. Part of these initiatives have survived into the post-conflict period and continues to provide access to redress, but also a framework for political engagement. The article also considers how some of these initiatives undertaken during the war helped facilitate the transformation of the CDF into active civilian members of society, drawing some conclusions from this case for political enfranchisement more broadly.

Reconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia

A key component of peace processes and post-conflict reconstruction is the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants. I argue that DDR programs imply multiple transitions: from the combatants who lay down their weapons, to the governments that seek an end to armed conflict, to the communities that receive—or reject—these demobilized fighters. At each level, these transitions imply a complex equation between the demands of peace and the clamor for justice. However, traditional approaches to DDR have focused on military and security objectives, which have resulted in these programs being developed in relative isolation from the field of transitional justice and its concerns with historical clarification, justice, reparations, and reconciliation. Drawing upon my research with former combatants in Colombia, I argue that successful reintegration not only requires fusing the processes and goals of DDR programs with transitional justice measures, but that both DDR and transitional justice require a gendered analysis that includes an examination of the salient links between weapons, masculinities, and violence. Constructing certain forms of masculinity is not incidental to militarism: rather, it is essential to its maintenance. What might it mean to “add gender” to DDR and transitional justice processes if one defined gender to include men and masculinities, thus making these forms of identity visible and a focus of research and intervention? I explore how one might “add gender” to the DDR program in Colombia as one step toward successful reintegration, peace-building, and sustainable social change.

High Hopes, Grim Reality: Reintegration and the Education of Former Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone.

Civil war broke out in Sierra Leone in 1991 and lasted more than a decade. During the conflict, both the national army and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), a rebel group responsible for some of the worst atrocities during the conflict, abducted children from the villages they attacked and occupied. An estimated 15,000–22,000 children of all ages were taken from their families and forced to serve the military groups in a number of ways, from performing domestic chores and other military support roles to committing acts of violence (McKay and Mazurana 2004). Many were sexually abused and forced to use alcohol and drugs. At the end of the conflict, short-term disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programs targeting children formerly associated with fighting and armed groups attempted to prepare children to return to their homes. In the medium to long term, however, true reintegration depends on former child soldiers having access to educational and training opportunities that will support them to achieve greater self-sufficiency and increased productivity within their communities. A number of studies have explored aspects of education relating to the reintegration of former child soldiers into their communities (Verhey 2001; Annan et al. 2006; Wessells 2006a). In particular, researchers have shown the negative effects of child soldiering on the educational and economic outcomes of former child soldiers. A few studies have discussed the relative benefits of education for war-affected youth during the postconflict phase (Santacruz and Arana 2002; Annan et al. 2006; Wessells 2006a). In Sierra Leone, available research focuses on the DDR process (Humphreys and Weinstein 2004, 2007) and has explored the relationship between DDR program participation and outcomes such as income-earning capacity, confidence in the democratic process, and acceptance within a sample of mainly adults (mean age of 31 years). Although the large survey sample included some youth as young as 14, educational opportunities and issues facing children and adolescents were not specifically examined. The complexity of providing education to former child soldiers in Sierra Leone and the potential challenges that may be associated with their return to school remain unexplored in the research. This study aims to fill this gap and presents the perspectives of former child soldiers in Sierra Leone, their caregivers, and community members speaking to the role of education in their psychosocial adjustment and community reintegration following the end of the civil war. In this article we first examine the state of the Sierra Leonean educational system before and after the war and its role in the reintegration of former child soldiers. Next, we present the perspectives of former child soldiers, their caregivers, and community members on the role of education in reintegrating former child soldiers into society. We also examine the barriers they described in accessing educational and other training opportunities and in achieving their future goals.

Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding in Africa: An Overview

ABSTRACT This article draws on the experience of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programs on the African continent. It explains the link between DDR in Africa and the evolution of post-conflict peacebuilding as envisioned by former UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the phases of the DDR process, the actors involved in the practice of DDR—both within the UN system and outside. Seven case studies are used to illustrate how DDR programs have been implemented, the lessons that have been learned as a result, and the challenges that are yet to be overcome. A general evaluation of DDR is provided in the conclusion, which taps into discussions and recommendations emerging from a 2006 conference held on the subject at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra, Ghana.